aggression definitions

Cognitive Priming

Cognitive priming was first proposed by Berkowitz (1984) to explain the short-term effects of media violence. This is because 'priming' refers to a temporary increase in the accessibility of thoughts and ideas. Berkowitz suggested that if people are exposed to violent media (e.g. films, video games), this activates thoughts or ideas about violence, which then activate (or prime) other aggressive thoughts due to their association in a person's memory pathways. Therefore, if a person is watching a film in which a character 'kills' another characters, this may prime thoughts of physical violence', which may then lead to feelings of anger and wanting to harm another person.

De-Individuation

De-individuation is a social psychological explanation for aggression. De-individuation theory was first introduced by Zimbardo (1969), who suggested that de-in dividual ion occurs when people who are part of a relatively anonymous group, lose their personal identity and consequently their inhibitions in relation to violence. According to Diener (1980), deindividuation occurs as a result of four factors; 1) poor self-monitoring of behaviour; 2) reduced need for social approval; 3) reduced inhibitions against behaving impulsively; and 4) reduced rational thinking.

Desensitisation

Desensitisation refers to the way that in which people become less anxious and shocked by media violence, as a result of exposure. The more violence someone is exposed to (through watching TV, films, or by playing violent video games), the more acceptable aggressive behaviour becomes. The result is that individuals may be more likely to accept violence and aggression and may be more likely to respond violently and aggressively, when presented with the opportunity to do so.

Disinhibition; Aggression

Disinhibition is a theory which explains how the media can influence aggression. It proposes that our normal restraints are loosened after exposure to media violence (e.g. films, TV, video games). Aggressive behaviour then becomes normalised and these norms govern a person's behaviour, which is altered from non-acceptance to acceptance. This means that aggression is then seen as a 'normal¹ response in certain circumstances. One aspect of aggression that is often normalised is an aggressive response as a result of a real or imagined wrongdoing. If the viewed aggression is seen as a revenge response, this is deemed to be 'normal', and thus it is justified.

Dispositional Explanations:

Dispositional explanations for institutional aggression, in the context of

Aggression

prisons, suggest that aggression occurs as the result of individual characteristics that prisoners bring into the institution. One example is the Importation Model; which suggests that prisoners bring (import) their own social histories and personality traits into the prison and this influences their behaviour.

Ethological Explanation:

An ethological explanation seeks to understand the innate behaviour of

Aggression

animals (including humans) by studying them in their natural environment. The focus of an ethological explanation is to try and account for behaviour in terms of its adaptive value to the specific species. With regard to aggression, which is seen in all animal species, it is believed to be an innate behaviour that has an adaptive function. Aggression can aid survival, as it can be used to protect resources such as land and food. Aggression can establish dominance hierarchies, and these are vital to a How access to other resources, such as females. The ethological explanation proposes that aggression can be the result of an evolved automatic biological response in the brain; it is believed that animals have a built-in neural structure (a network of neurons) which, when exposed to specific stimuli (signs or releasers), such as facial expressions, will cause the release of an automatic behavioural response.

Evolutionary Explanations:

Aggression

Evolutionary explanations of aggression suggest that aggression serves an important function in terms of both individual survival as well as reproductive potential. Competition arises when resources are limited and animals must compete in order to survive and reproduce. Some behaviours, such as aggression, would have made it more likely that our ancestors survived and passed on their genes. This means that aggression has an adaptive purpose because it facilitates survival and adaptation to the environment. Males who used aggression would have been successful in securing and retaining mates, as they could fight any rivals and prevent their mates from sexual infidelity; consequently, they would be more likely to pass on their genes.

Fixed Action Patterns

Fixed action patterns are behavioural sequences that occur as a result of innate releasing mechanisms. For example, when a dog sees a cat running away from them, they have an instinctive response to chase the cat. When the cat is still, the innate releasing mechanism is not activated; however, ft is the cat running that activates the innate releasing mechanism. Consequently, the dog chasing the cat is an example of a fixed action pattern which is activated by an innate releasing mechanism. The dog's desire to chase is automatic and instinctual in response to a cat or any other small animal running away.

Frustration -Aggression Hypothesis

The frustration-aggression hypothesis was developed by Dollard et al. (1939) and is based on the psycho dynamic explanation of catharsis. Freud believed that the drive for aggression was innate, like the drive for food. He believed that the only way to reduce aggression is to engage in an activity which released it. Dollard et al. (1939) claim that when humans experience frustration, this leads to aggression; the aggression is a cathartic release of the frustration. Furthermore, Dollard explains that if an individual is prevented from achieving a goal by some externa I factor, then this will lead to frustration, which will always lead to aggression.

Genetic Factors: Aggression

The genetic explanation for aggression suggests that aggression is an inherited behaviour. Early genetic explanations focused on chromosomal abnormalities. Specifically, in the 1960s, the XYY genotype was believed by many to be correlated with aggression. More recently, research has focused on a defect in the MAOA gene, which is linked to aggression.

Hormonal Mechanisms:

Aggression

Hormonal mechanisms have been linked to aggression. Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by cells or glands; testosterone is the main hormone that has been implicated in aggressive behaviour.

Innate Releasing

Mechanisms

The ethological explanation proposes that aggression can be the result of an evolved automatic biological response in the brain. It is believed that animals have a built-in neural structure (a network of neurons) which, when exposed to specific stimuli (signs or releasers) such as facial expressions, will cause the release of an automatic behavioural response (a fixed action pattern). This inbuilt biological structure or process is called the innate releasing mechanism (1 RM). For example, when a dog sees a cat running away from them, they have an instinctive response to chase the cat. When the cat is still, the innate releasing mechanism is not activated; however, it is the cat running that activates the innate releasing mechanism. Consequently, the dog chasing the cat is an example of a fixed action pattern which is activated by an innate releasing mechanism. The dog's desire to chase is automatic and instinctual in response to a cat or any other small animal running away.

Institutional Aggression

Institutions are places where there are strict rules that give lift Ie choice to members of that institution. Examples include the armed forces, prisons, and mental institutions. Institutional aggression refers to aggressive behaviours adopted by members of an institution; for example, prisoners may form gangs that commit violence against other inmates. Psychologists are interested in whether institution al aggression is caused by the personalities of the institution's members (dispositional factors), or by the situation in which the members find themselves (situational factors).

Limbic System

The limbic system is part of the brain that includes structures such as the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus that are implicated in reactive aggression. Reactive aggression is a response to a perceived threat, as opposed to proactive aggression, which is a response in anticipation of a reward. The limbic system also connects to the cingulate gyrus, which is responsible for focusing attention on emotionally significant events. In addition, the limbic system has connections to the prefrontal cortex which is involved in forward planning and anticipation of reward. The limbic system plays a key role in how an organism responds to environmental threats and challenges and thus is believed to be the key factor in whether we respond aggressively or not to an external stimulus

MAOA Gene

Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) is an enzyme that breaks down important neurotransmitters in the brainy including dopamine and serotonin; low levels of serotonin have been associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviour. MAOA is regulated by the MAOA gene and humans have various forms of the gene, resulting in different levels of activity of the enzyme. One variant of the gene is associated with high levels of MAOA (MAOA-H) and another variant is associated with low levels (MAOA-L). Several studies have now found a correlation between the low-activity form of the MAOA gene and aggression.

Media Influences; Aggression

Media influences are changes in behaviour that are attributed to exposure to media such as films; TV and video games. Psychologists are interested in how and why media violence influences aggression and three explanations have been offered; desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming.

Neural Mechanisms:

Aggression

Neural mechanisms are structures such as neurons, neural circuits and regions of the brain. They are also substances such as neurotransmitters and hormones. Neural mechanisms regulate aggression and examples, including the limbic system, serotonin and testosterone.

Serotonin

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that exerts a calming effect on the brain, inhibiting neurons from firing. Lower levels of serotonin are associated with less control in relation to aggressive responses. This has led to the claim that low levels of serotonin are linked to impulsivity and explosive acts of violence.

Situational Explanations;

Aggression

Situational explanations for institutional aggression within the context of prison s, focus on aggression stemming from factors within the social situation. One example is the de privation model, which suggests that the aggression shown by many prison inmates is caused by the deprivations they experience on a daily basis. Sykes (1958) outlined five de privations that he believed were caused by the indignities and degradations suffered by inmates: deprivation of liberty; de privation of autonomy; deprivation of goods and services; deprivation of heterosexual relationships; and deprivation of security.

Social Learning Theory;

Aggression

Social learning theory states that individuals become aggressive by imitating role models. 5LTstates that observational learning takes place, and that this learning is reinforced vicariously. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when a person witnesses a model being rewarded for behaving in an aggressive way. Vicarious reinforcement makes it more likely that the model's behaviour will be imitated in the future. According to Bandura, four mediational processes must occur for imitation of behaviour to take place: attention (an individual must pay attention to the model's aggressive behaviour); retention (individuals must code and store the observed aggressive behaviour in long-term memory); reproduction (individuals must be capable of imitating the aggressive behaviour); and motivation (individuals must have good reason for reproducing the aggressive behaviour).

Social Psychological

Explanations Aggression

Social psychological explanations for aggression focus on how the- aggressive behavior of an individual influences and is influenced by other people. Examples are social learning theory, the frustration-aggression hypothesis and deindividuation.

Testosterone: Aggression

Testosterone is an androgen which produces mate characteristics, although it is present in both males and females and is linked to aggression. It is suggested that testosterone acts with androgen or oestrogen receptors in the brain, affecting the neural transmission and the amount of neurotransmitters that are released at the serotonergic synapses. It appears to lower the amount of serotonin that is available, thereby leaving people less able to control their aggressive responses to situations and people.