Study Notes on Universal and Classical Literature

Chinese Literature

Chinese literature is distinguished by prominent figures such as Confucio (also known as Kung Fu Tse, meaning "venerated master Kung"), Lao-Tsé, Li t'ai-po, and Tu Fu. Confucio was a moralist philosopher who postured that "man is on earth to perfect himself through love, justice, wisdom, and piety." He was responsible for compiling and studying the most ancient literary manifestations of his people. Europeans (Westerners) attributed to him the so-called "clásicos de Confucio King." Lao-Tsé, active during the $V-VII$ century B.C., was a religious reformer whose teachings and sentences are preserved in the book Tao-Te King. This work postulates a renunciation of the will and action. Li t'ai-po and Tu Fu are recognized as representatives of highly refined poetry.

Persian Literature ($XV$ Century B.C.)

Persian literature features significant works such as the "Zend Avesta," which is a compilation of Mazdeístas doctrines. This text focuses on the metaphysical struggle between good (Ormuz) and evil (Arriman). Another key work is "Khodal Namah," which serves as a collection of legends and royal chronicles.

Hindu Literature ($XIV$ Century B.C.)

Hindu literature is divided into two primary periods: the Vedic period and the post-Vedic period. The Vedic period is characterized by the "Vedas" or books of sacred knowledge. These include:

• The Rig Veda: The Veda of stanzas or sacred hymns.
• The Atharwa veda: The Veda of spells and magic formulas.
• The Sam veda: The Veda of chants or melodies.
• The Yagur veda: The Veda of sacred formulas.

The post-Vedic period is also known as the period of great poems or "Epopeyas." Major works include the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Panchatantra, the Hitopadesa, and the Jitopadesa.

Major Hindu Epics: Mahabharata and Ramayana

The Mahabharata, meaning "great weight," is attributed to the poet-compiler Viasa. It is the most extensive epic in universal literature, consisting of $1200$ stanzas grouped into $19$ cantos, with total verses reaching $200000$, containing the breadth of Hindu knowledge. It narrates the conflict between two royal families: the Kurus (diabolical spirits) and the Pandus (spirits of good), with the latter ultimately prevailing. It also includes moral advice through various stories.

The Ramayana is attributed to Valmiki and consists of $24000$ stanzas divided into $7$ cantos. It describes the victory of RAMA (the god VISNU incarnated as a prince) over RAVANA, the leader of the RAXASIS (demons), who kidnapped RAMA's wife, SITA.

Educational narratives like the Panchatantra and Hitopadesa served as the origins for fables and short stories, maintaining a didactic purpose across approximately $12$ books. The Hitopadesa shares many fables with the Panchatantra but is described as more abundant in content and structure.

Mesopotamian and Arabic Literature

Mesopotamian literature, while not as extensively developed, includes the Código de Hammurabi and significant works such as "La Epopeya de Gilgames," "Las siete tablillas de la creación," "Job Babilónico," "La Enuma Elis," "El señor de Aratta," and "El código de Lipit Ishtar."

Arabic literature truly begins with Mahoma and El Corán (The Qur'an). El Corán consists of $114$ suras or chapters written in rhythmic phrases, capturing the teachings of the prophet Mahoma. Didactic prose is represented by "El collar de la paloma" by Ibn Hazm, which teaches the art of interpreting looks, words, and gestures to captivate others. The narrative tradition is best known through "Las mil y una noches" (The Thousand and One Nights), a collection of stories involving fantastic voyages, religious themes, and romantic strategies. Famous tales include "Simbad, el marino," "Aladino y la lámpara maravillosa," and "Ali Babá y los cuarenta ladrones." This collection reached Europe via the translation and adaptation by the Frenchman Antoine Galland.

Japanese and Egyptian Literature

Japanese literature is categorized into four periods:

• Periodo Arcaico: Includes the oldest literary samples such as "El Kokiki" (a collection of chants and legends).
• Segundo Periodo: Features the anthology "El Kokimshu" and the emergence of the Monogatari (tale or story).
• Tercer Periodo (Classic): Focused on refined poetry and works such as "Chenzi Monogatari" and "El libro de la almohada" (Pillow Book).
• Cuarto Periodo: Marked by the rise of NO (classic drama) and Kabuki (popular drama).

Egyptian literature includes foundational texts like "El libro de los muertos," the pyramid and sarcophagus texts, "El argumento del labrador talentoso," "El canto del arpista," "Las lamentaciones de Isis," "La historia de un náufrago," "La historia de Sinuhé," and various children's stories from the New Empire.

Hebrew Literature and The Bible

Hebrew literature is a pillar of universal literature, primarily expressed through the Bible (from the Greek "BIBLION" meaning books). The Bible consists of $73$ books divided into two sections:

1. Antiguo Testamento ($1250$ B.C. to $II$ Century B.C.): Comprising $46$ books written in Hebrew, it details the creation of the universe, the history of the Hebrew people, and their customs. It is divided into:    - Historical Books: Includes the Pentateuco (Génesis, Éxodo, Levítico, Números, Deuteronomio) and others like Josué, Jueces, Ruth, Samuel, Reyes, Crónicas, Esdras, Nehemías, Tobías, Judith, Esther, and Macabeos.    - Prophetic Books: Words transmitted by prophets such as Daniel, Isaías, Jeremías, and Ezequiel.    - Poetic and Wisdom Books: Emphasis on education and responsibility, including Job, Salmos, Proverbios, Eclesiastés, El cantar de los cantares, La Sabiduría, and El Eclesiástico.

2. Nuevo Testamento: Comprising $27$ books written in Greek, documenting events from the birth of Jesus to his death. It includes:    - Historical Books: The four Gospels (Mateo, Marcos, Lucas, Juan) and Los hechos de los apóstoles (by San Lucas).    - Didactic Books: Epistles by Santiago ($1$), San Judas ($1$), San Pedro ($2$ — likely meant by context, though sheet says 3), and San Pablo ($14$).    - Prophetic Book: El Apocalipsis de San Juan, where "Apocalipsis" signifies "revelation."

Foundations of Greek Literature

Greek literature is considered the cradle of European literature and the starting point for various literary genres. The Greeks reached an insuperable level of creative genius, serving as the ideal of literary beauty. Its history is divided into two main stages: Prehistory (oral literature) and History, which includes three periods:

• Periodo Jónico o Arcaico ($800$ to $500$ B.C.): The formation period where the epic genre emerged, blending history and mythology. Key figures include Homero and Hesíodo.
• Periodo Clásico o Ático ($500$ to $360$ B.C.): The golden age centered in Athens. Philosophy (Platón, Aristóteles) and theater (tragedy and comedy) flourished.
• Periodo Helenístico o alejandrino ($300$ to $30$ B.C.): A period of decline and cultural diffusion as Greek and Oriental cultures (Persia, Mesopotamia, Egypt) integrated before Roman domination.

Characteristics and Evolution of Greek Poetry

Greek literature created aesthetic paradigms for the world, including the search for beauty, harmony, balance between form and content (reason and feelings), and an anthropocentric/humanist character. The Epic genre (from "EPHOS" meaning story/narration) describes deeds of heroic characters and gods in hexameter verses. These stories were spread by Aedos (who recited their own compositions with a zither) and Rapsodas (who recited others' verses with a laurel branch). Homero is the representative of heroic epic poetry, while Hesíodo represents didactic epic poetry.

Homero and his Epic Works

Homero (also known as Melesígenes or "the blind one") is the oldest Greek poet, traditionally said to be from Chios. He is credited with "La Iliada" and "La Odisea," along with works like "La Batracomiomaquia" and "El Margites." These epics take place centuries before Homero's time ($850-750$ B.C.), likely based on earlier oral traditions regarding the $10$-year siege of Troy (Ilion).

Comparative Data: La Iliada vs. La Odisea

La Iliada:

• Cantos: $24$
• Verses: $15674$ in Hexameters.
• Theme: Force, courage, and the warrior spirit of the Greeks (Achaeans) symbolized by Aquiles.
• Action: Covers $53$ days during the $9^{th}$ year of the Troy siege.
• Main Character: Aquiles.
• Fidelity Symbol: Andrómaca.

La Odisea:

• Cantos: $24$
• Verses: $12110$ in Hexameters.
• Theme: Cunning and ingenuity embodied by Odiseo (Ulises).
• Action: The return of Greek warriors after Troy's destruction, specifically Ulises' journey home.
• Main Character: Ulises.
• Fidelity Symbol: Penélope.

Context of "La Iliada"

"La Iliada" is the first epic poem of Greek literature ($VIII$ Century B.C.). It features a simple, direct style colored by epithets. Notable epithets include:

• Aquiles: "el de los pies ligeros" (he of the light feet).
• Briseida: "la de las lindas mejillas" (she of the beautiful cheeks).
• Zeus: "el crónida."

Key Characters in "La Iliada"

Greeks:

• Menelao: King of Sparta.
• Helena: Wife of Menelao whose flight with Paris started the war.
• Aquiles: The true hero, a demigod (son of Tetis and king Peleo). His only vulnerability was his heel.
• Patroclo: Best friend of Aquiles.
• Odiseo (Ulises): King of Ithaca, the most sagacious of the Greeks.
• Néstor: King of Pilos, wise and prudent.

Trojans and Supporting Deities:

• Apolo (Febo): God who promotes the conflict between Aquiles and Agamenón.
• Venus (Afrodita): Protects Paris during a duel with Menelao.
• Marte (Ares): God of war, confronted by Minerva.
• Tetis: Sea goddess and mother of Aquiles; seeks vengeance from Zeus for Agamenón's offense.
• Zeus (Júpiter): Oversees the council of gods regarding Troy's fate.
• Juno (Hera): Wife of Zeus who supports the Greeks.
• Vulcano (Hefesto): Mediates between Zeus and Hera and serves nectar to the gods.
• Minerva (Atenea): Aids the Greeks in battle and ferial games.
• Poseidón (Neptuno): Sea god who encourages the Greeks to keep fighting.

Narrative Summary of "La Iliada"

The plot centers on an incident within the Greek camp: Agamenón kidnaps Briseida, Aquiles' slave. Enraged, Aquiles withdraws from combat, causing the Greeks to suffer losses against the Trojans led by Héctor (son of King Príamo). Eventually, Aquiles allows his friend Patroclo to enter the battle wearing his armor. The Trojans fled, mistaking Patroclo for Aquiles.