The History and Evolution of Law Enforcement

Police in a Democratic Society

• The police are entrusted with the responsibility to serve and protect the public through the control and prevention of crime.

• Uniformed officers represent the most common and direct point of contact between citizens and the law enforcement system.

Foundations of Law Enforcement in Early Civilizations

• The practice of law enforcement extends back to the earliest human civilizations, arising from a social need to promote the well-being of the group.

• In early civilizations, the most effective method for deterring or punishing deviant behavior was banishment, which was considered the equivalent of a death sentence.

• The camp guards of early civilizations serve as the first historical traces of law enforcement, performing functions fundamentally similar to those of present-day police.

Ancient Egyptian and Greek Origins

• The first recorded police organization in history is traced to the reign of Pharaoh Hur Moheb in Egypt, occurring around $1340\,B.C.$.

• The word "Police" is a derivative of the Greek term "Politeria."

• Politeria denotes the portion of government responsible for:

  • The protection of life and property.

  • The preservation of peace and order.

  • The prevention and suppression of crime.

Roman Contributions to Policing

• Significant contributions to law enforcement occurred during the reign of Emperor Augustus Caesar.

• Police were integrated as a special feature of the Roman government, utilizing a dedicated staff and various grades of officers.

• The primary function of the Roman police was the maintenance of order and security.

• The police force was structured into $7$ divisions overseeing $14$ districts.

• These Roman districts represent the world's first city police precincts, established a system of geographical organization that remains in use today.

English Roots of Law Enforcement

• American law enforcement concepts find their origins in England, beginning around $900\,A.D.$.

• Initially, justice was a private matter pursued by victims or their families, characterized by systems of revenge and retribution.

The Frankpledge System and Tithings

• Following the Norman Conquest in $1066$, King William instituted the frankpledge system, an early form of community policing.

• Under the frankpledge system, every male over the age of $12$ was required to participate in a tithing.

• A tithing consisted of a group of $10$ families responsible for the behavior of their members.

Shires, the Shire Reeve, and Constables

• In larger territorial areas, $10$ tithings were grouped into a unit of $100$ families known as a "hundred."

• A larger geographic group of these hundreds was called a shire.

• The top law enforcement official in these areas was known as the shire reeve.

• The shire reeve is the historical predecessor of the modern American sheriff.

• Shire reeves were often assisted by constables, who were responsible for organizing posses to pursue and apprehend criminals.

The Night Watch System and the Statute of Winchester

• In $1285$, the Statute of Winchester was passed, which formally established the night watch system of protection.

• Under this statute, one man from each parish was selected to serve as a constable.

• The constable had the authority to draft citizens to serve as watchmen to guard the city during the night.

• Citizen watchmen were unpaid, and the system was plagued by inefficiency as watchmen often neglected their duties.

The Justice of the Peace and the Evolution toward Professionalism

• In $1326$, the office of the shire reeve was replaced by the office of the justice of the peace.

• The justice of the peace supervised various law enforcement activities, including:

  • Investigating crimes.

  • Securing criminals for trial.

  • Organizing the night watch system.

• This system persisted into the $1700s$, founded on the ideals that citizens functioned as the police and law enforcement was organized locally—ideals that were later carried over to the American colonies.

• By the mid-$1700s$, London still lacked an efficient law enforcement system, leading to the use of the military for crime control.

Henry Fielding and the Bow Street Runners

• In $1748$, London magistrate Henry Fielding founded "The Bow Street Runners."

• This group of law enforcement agents was dedicated to apprehending criminals and recovering stolen property, specifically within the entertainment district.

• The Bow Street Runners were more effective than any contemporary law enforcement and paved the way for professional, efficient responses to crime.

Sir Robert Peel and Modern Policing

• The need for a more organized approach to law enforcement arose from the challenges of industrialization, crowded cities, and an increase in crime.

• In $1829$, Sir Robert Peel and the English Parliament passed the London Metropolitan Police Act, which mandated a publicly funded police force.

• This act created a uniformed force known as "bobbies" or "peelers," named after Peel.

• Peel believed the primary function of police was to prevent crime through preventive policing without the use of force.

Peel’s Twelve Principles of Policing

• $1)$ The police must be stable, efficient, and organized along military lines.

• $2)$ The police must be under government control.

• $3)$ The absence of crime will best prove the efficiency of the police.

• $4)$ The distribution of crime news is essential.

• $5)$ The deployment of police strength, by both time and area, is essential.

• $6)$ No quality is more indispensable to a policeman than a perfect command of temper; a quiet, determined manner has more effect than a violent action.

• $7)$ Good appearance commands respect.

• $8)$ The securing and training of proper persons is the root of efficiency.

• $9)$ Public security demands that every police officer be given a number.

• $10)$ Police headquarters should be centrally located and easily accessible to the people.

• $11)$ Policemen should be hired on a probationary basis.

• $12)$ Police records are necessary to the correct distribution of police strength.

Historical Eras of Law Enforcement in the United States

• United States law enforcement history is divided into $4$ major periods:

  • The Political Era ($1840-1920$).

  • The Reform Era (Early $20th$ century).

  • The Professional Era ($1920s-1970s$).

  • The Community Era ($1970-\text{present}$).

The Political Era and the Reform Era

• During the Political Era ($1840-1920$), police agencies provided a unified force in major cities, but were governed by the "spoils" system. Police were often powerful, corrupt, poorly trained, and abusive. The focus was on crime prevention and order maintenance through foot patrols.

• The Reform Era emerged in the early $20th$ century due to concerns from middle and upper-class citizens regarding corruption.

  • Objectives included stopping political patronage, improving government efficiency, removing law enforcement from politics, and introducing modern technology.

  • Police administrative boards and civilian review boards were established to reduce political control. These boards appointed administrators and controlled affairs but often failed because the appointed leaders lacked law enforcement knowledge.

The Professional Era and August Vollmer

• August Vollmer, the Chief of Police in Berkeley, California, was the most famous police reformer of the early $20th$ century.

• Vollmer instituted university training for officers and helped develop the School of Criminology at the University of California at Berkeley, which became the model for future criminal justice programs.

• Vollmer’s model of professional policing included $6$ essential elements:

  • The police force should stay out of politics.

  • Members should be well-trained, disciplined, and tightly organized.

  • Laws should be equally enforced.

  • The police should utilize technological developments.

  • Personnel procedures should be based on merit.

  • The crime-fighting role should be prominent.

O.W. Wilson and the Advancements of Professional Policing

• O.W. Wilson, a student of Vollmer, significantly altered policing by shifting the focus from order maintenance to crime control.

• Wilson advocated for:

  • The use of motorized patrols.

  • Radio communication.

  • Rapid response to aid in crime fighting.

• He suggested the use of one-man patrols for optimal personnel deployment and the rotation of beat assignments to combat police corruption.

The Community Era and Modern Policing Research

• Starting in the $1970s$, research findings indicated that the professional model had limitations:

  • Increasing the number of patrol officers had little effect on crime rates.

  • Rapid response did not significantly increase arrest rates.

  • Improving the rates of solving specific crimes proved difficult or impossible.

• The Community Era ($1970-\text{present}$) shifted the focus from strict crime-fighting toward maintaining order and providing service to the community.

• The movement encouraged officers to exit patrol cars, spend more time on the street assisting citizens, and integrate service with their crime-fighting roles.