Background: The Anthracite Coal Strike occurred during late October 1902 in Pennsylvania, where workers had been striking for five months. The strike threatened to leave eastern cities without heating fuel for the winter.
Resolution: President Theodore Roosevelt felt relieved after an agreement between workers and employers was reached, leading to the resumption of coal production on October 23, 1902.
Quote from Roosevelt: He expressed his relief whimsically, stating, "I feel like throwing up my hands and going to the circus; but as that is not possible I think I shall try a turkey shoot or bear hunt or something of the kind instead."
Formation of a Commission
Federal Commission: Roosevelt appointed a federal commission to investigate the conditions in the anthracite coal industry, with a neutral body deciding terms of employment after hearings that began in November 1902.
Testimony Collection: The commission collected testimony from hundreds of workers and mine operators over several months, closing hearings in February 1903.
Labor Disputes and Grievances
Primary issues:
- Low Pay: Workers felt their compensation did not meet living standards due to the perilous nature of mining.
- Workday Length: Workers complained about long hours and exhausting conditions.
- Undercounting: Miners alleged that operators undercounted the mined amount to reduce pay.
- Union Recognition: A significant grievance was employers' refusal to recognize the United Mine Workers of America (UMW).
- John Mitchell's Statement: UMW President declared that collective action was essential for regulating employment issues.
Government Intervention
Federal Intervention Precedents: Past interventions by U.S. presidents typically involved responding to threats against federal property or public safety. The commission represented a new form of non-coercive federal involvement in labor disputes, setting a precedent for future governance.
American Labor Movement Overview
Early Organized Labor: The rise of the workingmen’s parties in the early 1830s, which were short-lived due to infighting and external political interference, left a mark on American business-labor relations.
Trade Societies: Initial labor organizations began as skilled workers’ trade societies in the 1790s, focusing on fair wages and working conditions.
Economic Conditions and Protests
Expansion of Labor Unions: Economic recovery in the 1820s after a recession led to a rise in trade societies and unions, culminating in the formation of the National Trades Union in 1834, striving for economic equality and a common worker identity.
Political Involvement: Growing political influence of labor was evident in the support of public initiatives such as public education and anti-monopoly measures.
Revival of Union Activity in the 1830s
Economic Prosperity: Mid-1830s economic prosperity led to increased union membership and strikes, with approximately 168 strikes organized between 1833-1837.
Demand for Work Hours: A key victory for labor was reducing the workday from dawn to dusk to ten hours.
Labor Unions' Legal Challenges
Legal Opposition: Early labor movements faced significant legal challenges, including court rulings labeling them as conspiracies against employers.
Changing Legal Landscape: By the mid-1800s, unions began to gain legal recognition, with certain cases ruling them lawful as long as there were "useful and honorable purposes."
The Impact of Economic Crises
Declining Union Power: Economic downturns devastated unions, drastically reducing membership and influence in the late 1830s and 1840s.
Societal Reforms and Collectivist Movements: Laborers embraced various reforms aimed at improving living conditions, including movements advocating for land ownership and the expansion of the ten-hour workday.
Resurrection in the 1860s
Increase in Union Activity: The labor movement regained momentum in the 1860s amidst the Civil War, buoyed by rising wages and an influx of new members.
Establishment of WBA: In 1869, the Workingmen’s Benefit Association (WBA) was created, resulting in significant worker concessions in subsequent years.
WBA's Decline and Challenges
Resistance from Operators: The WBA faced fierce opposition from coal operators, culminating in strikes that often resulted in wage cuts instead of increases.
Economic Downturn and Unrest: The economic recession of the early 1870s saw a massive decline in union memberships and outbreaks of violence and unrest among workers.
The Great Railroad Strike of 1877
Disruption and Violence: The Great Railroad Strike exemplified widespread labor discontent, leading to violent confrontations and state intervention.
Aftermath: Employers began taking more aggressive actions against unions, including the pursuit of legal remedies and anti-union legislation.
Emergence of New Labor Organizations
Knights of Labor: Founded in 1869, it aimed to unify all laborers across trades and gained significant membership, reaching over 700,000 by 1886 but ultimately faced decline due to violent incidents and failed strikes.
Formation of AFL: The American Federation of Labor was established in 1886, focusing on immediate and achievable goals for workers, such as strikes and legislation for labor rights.
Major Strikes of the 1890s
Homestead Strike: A violent strike in 1892 against the Carnegie Steel Company ended with federal intervention, highlighting tensions between labor and capital.
Pullman Strike: In 1894, a nationwide strike paralyzed railroads and ended in failure due to federal intervention, further establishing the government's opposition to labor movements.
The UMW in the 1890s
Formation and Challenges: The United Mine Workers of America formed in 1890 but struggled to gain a foothold in the anthracite region until late 1899. The organization faced violence and instability in its early years.
The Anthracite Strike of 1900
Related Actions: When operators refused to negotiate with the UMW, a strike began on September 17, 1900, involving up to 136,000 workers, leading to public support but ultimately unresolved tensions.
The Anthracite Strike of 1902
Mounting Tensions: The UMW initiated a strike after operators refused to discuss wages and conditions, demanding an eight-hour workday, union recognition, and wage increases.
Striking Details: The strike began on May 12, 1902, involving 145,000 workers, leading to increased public scrutiny and violence accusations.
President Roosevelt's Intervention
Government Reaction: As the crisis unfolded with coal prices soaring, Roosevelt took an unprecedented interest in mediating the labor dispute owing to its implications for public welfare.
Washington Conference: Roosevelt convened an October meeting with both parties, but operators inflexible resistance hindered progress towards resolution.
Compromise and Commission Outcomes
Commission for Resolution: Roosevelt initiated a commission to settle labor disputes with recommendations binding for three years, seeking a middle ground without explicitly recognizing the UMW.
Final Demands: Following a thorough investigation, the commission addressed miners’ demands, recognizing the dangerous nature of mining and asserting the need for appropriate compensation.
Commission Conclusion: The commission's final recommendations were established based on a substantial body of evidence and witness testimony, marking a significant governmental step in labor relations.
Summary and Implications
Historical Significance: The Anthracite Coal Strike of 1902 represented a turning point in labor relations by showcasing federal intervention in labor disputes without resorting to violence.
Long-Lasting Effects: The decisions made would influence subsequent labor negotiations and set precedents for government involvement in the economic disputes between workers and employers in the future.