The Vietnam War and American Involvement

Overview of the Vietnam War

  • Module 12 focuses on the Vietnam War and related protests.

  • Important military conflict (1945-1975) during the Cold War, lasting effects on military, social culture, and political developments in U.S. history.

  • Also referred to globally as:

    • Second Indochina War

    • American War in Vietnam

    • Vietnam Conflict

Causes of Vietnam

  • French Colonization

  • Rise of Vietnamese nationalism during WWI, seeking autonomy and control over their own resources.

  • Japanese occupation during WWII led to the overthrow of the French government in Indochina.

  • Japanese surrender

  • French Recolonization (1946-1954)

  • After WWII, Vietnamese nationalists pushed for independence, leading to the First Indochina War (1946-1954) against French colonizers.

  • Ho Chi Minh led the Viet Minh, advocating for the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

    • Cold War struggle and colonial struggle

  • The Viet Minh forces defeated the French at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954, leading to foreign refusal to allow Vietnam to unify under their rule.

Geneva Accord, July 21, 1954

  • Although the Democratic Republic of Vietnam won the war, foreign powers refused to let them rule a unified Vietnam

  • Resulted in the division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel:

    • 17th Parallel: Demilitarized zone (DMZ)

    • French colonial troops moved to the south

    • DRV troops moved to the north

  • North Vietnam (communist) led by Ho Chi Minh.

  • South Vietnam (anti-communist) led by Nguyen Van Thieu.

  • Geneva Accords called for nationwide elections for reunification, which were disrupted by foreign influences, especially the U.S.

U.S. Involvement in Vietnam

  • Harry S. Truman (1945-1953):

    • Had little interest in colonial conflicts

    • Initially neutral, he focused on containment but provided military and economic aid to France (Truman Doctrine)

    • Influenced by the Truman Doctrine aimed at containing communism.

  • Dwight Eisenhower (1953-1961):

    • Feared Vietnam would fall to Communists (Domino Theory).

    • Provided substantial economic assistance to South Vietnam and military aid to France.

    • Funded the Navarre Plan ($385 million) for military operations against Vietnamese forces.

Presidents and Policies

  • John F. Kennedy (1961-1963):

    • Expanded economic commitments to South Vietnam and embraced the Flexible Response strategy → Expansion of the American military to fight in every type of conflict

    • 1963 - stepped up American involvement to unprecedented levels

    • Focus on a range of political, economic, and military options instead of solely nuclear deterrence.

  • Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1968):

    • Concerned about Vietnam

    • Concerned about the U.S. image and the containment policy; pushed for deeper involvement after Gulf of Tonkin Incident.

    • Supported military escalation; domino theory maintained as a justification.

  • Richard Nixon (1969-1974):

    • Implemented Vietnamization: gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops while transferring combat responsibility to South Vietnam. Aimed for "Peace with Honor", focused on reducing American casualties while supporting South Vietnam militarily.

  • Gerald Ford (1974-1977):

    • Continued Nixon's policies of gradual withdrawal

    • Emphasized humanitarian efforts and large-scale evacuations for South Vietnamese refugees.

    • Providing financial aid to South Vietnam

    • “Moral Obligation”:

      • Large-scale evacuations

      • Refugee resettlement

      • Humanitarian aid

Military Engagements and Strategies

  • U.S. military involvement began after the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (August 7, 1964), which expanded military powers.

    • August 2, 1964 - USS Maddox claims a North Vietnamese gunboat attacked the ship off the coast of North Vietnam (no damage)

    • August 7, 1964 - Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

      • Unlimited power for military intervention in Vietnam

  • Operation Rolling Thunder (1965-1968):

    • Aimed to change North Vietnam’s strategies without provoking a wider conflict.

    • Sustained bombing against North Vietnam:

      • Utilized heavy bombing and missiles (approximately 864,000 tons of ordnance), targeting infrastructure and supply routes.

      • More bombs were dropped than in the Pacific Theater during WWII

  • Intended to force Ho Chi Minh to abandon his military pursuits in South Vietnam

  • More bombs than all of WWII

  • 5 phases

  • The bombing campaign was ineffective

Bombs and Chemical Weapons

  • Key chemical weapons used included Napalm and Agent Orange; severe long-term health impacts on veterans and Vietnamese civilians.

  • Napalm Bombs - Burning jellied gasoline

  • “Operation Ranch Hand”:

    • “Rainbow Herbicides”

    • Defoliate areas

    • Destroy agriculture

  • Agent Orange:

    • Most common Hericide used

    • Cancer

    • Birth Defects

    • Severe PTSD

Major Turning Points

  • Tet Offensive (1968):

    • Coordinated surprise attack by North Vietnam and Viet Cong Communists against populated South Vietnam centers; major military campaign targeting over 100 cities, including Saigon.

    • One of the largest military campaigns during the war

    • The US helped South Vietnam troops turn the offensive back

    • Shocked the American public and contradicted claims of a winning war, escalating dissent, and influencing political decision-making.

    • 1968 marked the beginning of the war’s escalation

  • Shifts in public opinion became evident post-Tet, leading to Johnson’s decision not to seek reelection.

My Lai Massacre

  • In an incident that occurred in March 1968 involving Charlie Company during a search and destroy mission, American troops killed approximately 504 South Vietnamese civilians. (No North Vietnamese soldiers, only South)

    • Mutilation

    • Rape

  • Massive cover-up attempt (1969)

  • Highlighted military misconduct and raised international outrage, deepening anti-war sentiment and skepticism towards military conduct.

  • Only one officer was tried and convicted (Lt. William Calley); controversy over the event solidified the anti-war movement.

Societal Responses

  • American soldiers (GIs) also protested America’s involvement; they established coffee houses and underground newspapers to express dissent. (GI Underground Press, Fed Up!, Counterpoint)

  • Some GIs went AWOL; racial issues within the military surfaced, including disproportionate hardships for African-American soldiers.

Black GI Resistance:

  • Drastically increased after the assassination of MLK Jr.

  • Black Nationalism

  • Fought for the ability to express cultural identity and access to Black products:

    • Afro

    • Black Power symbols

    • The “Dap”

    • Black magazines and newspapers

    • Hair products

    • Pornography

  • Black GI Organizations:

    • NAACP

    • Black Panther-inspired groups:

      • De Mau Mau

      • Blackstone Rangers

      • Ju Ju

  • Malcolm X Society

  • Black Servicemen’s Caucus

  • GIs United Against War

Military and Race During Vietnam

  • The Vietnam War was the first major conflict featuring a fully desegregated military, but issues of race relations persisted.

  • Major issues with military race relations

  • Lack of black officers

  • Racial bias and military promotions

  • Disproportionate number of Dishonorable discharges

  • Racial violence

  • Housing Discrimination

  • Black Americans were disproportionately drafted to Vietnam

  • “Fragging”

  • Military Justice System

Conclusion and Next Topics

  • This module covered the complexities of American involvement in Vietnam, the effects on society, and changes in public opinion.

  • Subsequent discussions will cover anti-war protests and student movements relating to the Vietnam War.