Biology 2114 - Anatomy and Physiology II Course Notes

Key Topics:
  - Explain the general mechanisms by which hormones work.
  - Discuss the control of endocrine organs.
  - Describe the role of the hypothalamus in endocrine control.
  - Describe the location, hormones, and functions of the following endocrine glands:
    - Pituitary Gland
    - Thyroid Gland
    - Parathyroid Glands
    - Adrenal Glands
    - Pancreas
    - Ovaries
    - Testes
    - Pineal Gland
    - Thymus
  - Describe endocrine disorders of hypo- and hypersecretion.
  - Discuss the functions of the endocrine system in maintaining homeostasis.
  - Contrast the endocrine and nervous systems.
Due Dates: Exam 1 covers Chapter 13 only from 03/29/2026 - 03/31/2026. Final due date: 05/06/2026.

Key Topics:
  - List the components of plasma and their functions.
  - List the characteristics and functions of formed elements in blood.
  - Identify the stages involved in hemostasis.
  - Explain the ABO blood grouping system and the Rh factor.
  - Discuss causes of anemia.
  - Describe selected blood disorders and tests.
Due Dates: Final due date: 05/06/2026.

Key Topics:
  - Describe the anatomy of the heart and heart wall.
  - Describe the flow of blood through the heart, including the pulmonary and systemic circuits.
  - Explain the structural and functional features of the conduction system of the heart and EKG tracings.
  - Describe the principal events of the cardiac cycle.
  - Contrast the sounds of the heart and their clinical significance.
  - Calculate cardiac output and discuss factors that affect it.
  - List the risk factors involved in heart disease.
  - Contrast the structure and function of the various types of blood vessels.
  - Explain how venous blood is returned to the heart.
  - Explain blood pressure and pulse.
  - Discuss the factors that affect blood pressure.
  - Contrast the clinical significance of systolic, diastolic, and pulse pressure.
  - Discuss the mechanism of capillary exchange.
  - Describe blood flow through systemic and pulmonary circuits; identify the principal arteries and veins of these circuits and the hepatic portal circulation.
  - Describe unique aspects of fetal circulation.
  - Explain the effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system.
  - Describe significant cardiovascular diseases, including:
    - Coronary artery disease
    - Congestive heart failure
Due Dates: Final due date: 05/06/2026.

Key Topics:
  - List lymphoid cells, including:
    - Lymphocytes (T and B cells)
    - Plasma cells
    - Macrophages
    - Reticular cells
  - Discuss lymphoid organs, including:
    - Lymph nodes
    - Bone marrow
    - Spleen
    - Thymus
    - Tonsils and nodule aggregates
  - Discuss the basic properties of immunity.
  - Discuss innate and adaptive immunity.
  - Explain the process of cellular immunity and the role of T-cells.
  - Explain the process of humoral immunity and the role of B-cells and antibodies.
  - Discuss the difference between primary and secondary immune responses.
  - Describe types of active and passive immunity.
  - Describe selected immune disorders.
Due Dates: Exam 2 covers Chapters 14 - 16 from 04/15/2026 - 04/18/2026. Final due date: 05/06/2026.

Key Topics:
  - Identify the organs of the gastrointestinal tract and the accessory organs of digestion, along with their functions.
  - Identify the general histological layers of the digestive organs and explain how the layers are modified to accommodate the function of each organ.
  - Describe the mechanical movements of the GI tract.
  - Identify the major digestive secretions and their functions.
  - List the enzymes involved in the breakdown of:
    - Carbohydrates
    - Fats
    - Proteins
  - Describe the process of absorption of:
    - Carbohydrates
    - Fats
    - Proteins
  - Define the process involved in the formation of feces and defecation.
  - Describe common disorders of the digestive system.
  - Discuss carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.
  - Discuss metabolic rate and the role of the liver in metabolism.
  - Describe the absorptive and post-absorptive states.
Due Dates: Final due date: 05/06/2026.

Key Topics:
  - Identify the organs of the respiratory system and describe their functions.
  - Contrast internal and external respiration; explain the role of the alveolar-capillary membrane.
  - Describe the events involved in pulmonary ventilation; discuss the significance of pleura.
  - Explain the mechanism of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport in the blood.
  - Describe the factors that control the rate of respiration.
  - Define selected disorders of the respiratory system.
Due Dates: Final due date: 05/06/2026.

Key Topics:
  - Discuss the role of the kidney in maintaining blood pressure; describe the function of the juxtaglomerular apparatus.
  - Explain the role of key hormones on the kidney and their role in the regulation of water and electrolyte balance.
  - Identify the external and internal gross anatomical features of the kidneys.
  - Discuss the formation of urine; explain the microscopic anatomy of the nephron and its basic functions: filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
  - Discuss the role of the kidneys in the homeostasis of pH.
  - Discuss the components of urine.
  - Discuss the structure and physiology of the ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
  - Describe disorders of the urinary system.
Due Dates: Exam 3 covers Chapters 17 and 19 only from 04/27/2026 - 04/30/2026. Final due date: 05/06/2026.

Key Topics:
  - Explain the structure and functions of the male reproductive organs and the pathway of sperm.
  - Discuss the processes of spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis in males.
  - Describe the normal composition of semen and the role of accessory sex glands in semen production.
  - Discuss the role of hormones in the male reproductive system.
  - Explain the structure and functions of the female reproductive organs and the pathway of the egg/zygote.
  - Discuss the process of oogenesis.
  - Discuss the principal events of the menstrual and ovarian cycles; explain all hormones involved.
  - Discuss the physiology of sexual intercourse.
  - Discuss examples of male and female reproductive diseases.
Due Dates: Final due date: 05/06/2026.

Note: This schedule is subject to change.