Global Resistance to Established Power Structures
Overview
- Quote by Mohandas Gandhi: "What difference does it make to the dead, the orphans, and the homeless, whether the mad destruction is wrought under the name of totalitarianism or the holy name of liberty and democracy?"
- Essential Question: What were differing reactions to existing power structures after 1900?
- The 20th century saw significant conflicts affecting both newly independent and established states.
- Different approaches included both violent and nonviolent resistance against power structures.
Nonviolent Resistance as a Path to Change
- Despite prevalent wars and violent protests, many movements utilized nonviolence to create political change.
- Prominent examples include:
- Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948): Led nonviolent marches, boycotts, and fasts against British colonial rule in India; India gained independence in 1947.
- Martin Luther King Jr.: A leading figure in the African American civil rights movement; strategies included:
- Court decisions: E.g., Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, which prohibited racial segregation in schools.
- Bus Boycott (1955-1956): A year-long boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, succeeded in ending bus segregation.
- March on Washington (1964): 250,000 people participated in the March for Jobs and Freedom, solidifying support for civil rights.
- Result: Led to significant victories like the Civil Rights Act of 1965.
- Nelson Mandela (1918-2013): Leader of the black resistance against apartheid in South Africa; initially supported sabotage but was known for nonviolent protests.
- His resistance contributed to the end of apartheid (discussed in detail in Topic 9.5).
Challenges to Soviet Power in Eastern Europe
- In the 1950s and 1960s, reformers in Eastern Europe sought to lessen Soviet control.
- Poland: 1956 workers' demonstrations led to Wladyslaw Gomulka becoming the new leader, who sought to maintain Polish independence while remaining loyal to the USSR.
- Ended forced collectivization of farms.
- Hungary: Protests led Imre Nagy to declare independence from Soviet rule and call for reforms, including free elections and neutrality in the Cold War.
- Soviet response: invasion in 1956, capture, and execution of Nagy; many Hungarians fled as refugees.
- Czechoslovakia: The Prague Spring of 1968, led by Alexander Dubcek, aimed to increase freedoms and democratic governance.
- Soviet invasion crushed the movement; justifications came from the Brezhnev Doctrine, asserting intervention to protect socialist countries.
1968: The Year of Revolt
- Various global uprisings characterized 1968:
- Yugoslavia: Student protests against authoritarianism.
- Poland & Northern Ireland: Protests linked to religious discrimination.
- Brazil: Marchers called for educational and labor reforms.
- Japan: Protests against university policies and U.S. involvement in Vietnam.
- Mexico: Military suppressed student movements before the 1968 Olympics.
- France: Massive student protests led to the largest general strike in French history (10 million workers participated); President Charles de Gaulle called for elections after unrest.
- United States: Students protested civil rights and Vietnam War; Kent State incident in May 1970 resulted in four unarmed students being killed by the National Guard, leading to widespread university strikes.
An Age of Terrorism
- In the post-Cold War era, terrorist acts by individuals unaffiliated with governments became more common:
- Conflict in Northern Ireland: Catholic-Protestant tensions led to the rise of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and violence from the Ulster Defence Association. From 1969 to 1994, approximately 3,500 people died in the conflict.
- The IRA shifted to terrorism in England while seeking independence.
- Separatist Terrorism in Spain: The Basque Homeland and Freedom (ETA) group utilized violence for their independence agenda; over 800 deaths resulted from their actions.
- In 2011, ETA declared an end to violence and pursued political means.
- Shining Path in Peru: Founded by Abimael Guzmán, implemented violent bombings and assassinations to overthrow the government, resulting in an estimated 37,000 deaths.
- Negotiated with the government in 2011 after Guzmán's imprisonment in 1992.
- Islamic Terrorism: Groups like Boko Haram and al-Qaeda used a twisted interpretation of Islam to justify acts of terror, leading to thousands of civilian deaths.
- Notable incident: September 11, 2001 attacks by al-Qaeda, resulting in over 3,000 deaths; reaction led to a global coalition against terrorism.
Response of Militarized States
- Military dictatorships often exacerbated conflicts through repressive measures:
- Spain under Francisco Franco (1939-1975): Franco, a staunch anti-communist, executed and imprisoned political dissenters, yet opposition lingered leading to democratic reforms after his death.
- Uganda under Idi Amin (1971-1979): Infamous for brutal repression, expulsion of Asians, and severe human rights abuses, Amin's regime resulted in up to 500,000 deaths and worsened ethnic tensions.
The Military-Industrial Complex
- The vast military buildup during the Cold War led to economic pressures and global violence.
- Eisenhower termed the combination of government defense and private weapon manufacturers the military-industrial complex in 1961, warning of its potential to threaten democracy.
- The arms trade expanded significantly as countries sought military strength amidst global tensions.
Key Terms by Theme
GOVERNMENT: Europe
- Wladyslaw Gomulka
- Imre Nagy
- Prague Spring
- Alexander Dubček
- Brezhnev Doctrine
- Irish Republican Army (IRA)
- Ulster Defence Association
- Basque Homeland and Freedom (ETA)GOVERNMENT: South America
- Abimael Guzmán
- Shining PathSOCIETY: Protests
- Martin Luther King Jr.
- Nelson Mandela
- Kent State University