Encyclopedic Guide to Language Vices, Grammar, and Expository Writing
Language Vices (Vicios del Lenguaje)
Language vices are defined as the incorrect use of words or expressions that hinder the effective comprehension of a message. These errors occur in various forms throughout speech and writing, often obscure the speaker's intent, and are categorized into several specific types based on the nature of the error.
Barbarismo refers to an error in the pronunciation or writing of a specific word. A common example provided is saying "diabets" instead of the correct form "diabetes". Redundancy (Redundancia) involves the unnecessary repetition of an idea using similar words, such as the phrase "Lo vi con mis propios ojos" (I saw it with my own eyes). Cosismo characteristically involves the excessive use of the word "cosa" (thing) to refer to a variety of different objects or situations, exemplified by the phrase "Pásame esa cosa" (Pass me that thing).
Solecismo represents an error in the grammatical construction of a sentence. A frequent error is saying "Habían muchas personas" when the correct grammatical form should be "Había muchas personas". Muletilla (Filler words) are words or expressions that a speaker repeats constantly while talking, such as "este" or "ósea". Neologismo (Neologism) refers to a new word incorporated into the language, such as the verb "googlear". Pleonasmo (Pleonasm) is the use of unnecessary words that repeat an idea already expressed, such as "Sube para arriba" (Go up upstairs) or "sal afuera" (Go outside).
Extranjerismo (Foreignism) is the use of a word taken from another language, as seen in the phrase "vamos a tener un break" (we are going to have a break). Anfibología (Amphiboly) describes an expression with a double meaning or a confusing significance, such as "Vi a Juan con los binoculares" (I saw Juan with the binoculars), where it is unclear who had the binoculars. Dequeísmo is the incorrect use of the phrase "de que", exemplified by the sentence "Pienso de que vendrá mañana" (I think that [of that] he will come tomorrow).
The Review (Reseña) and Language Processes
A review (Reseña) is a text that describes, analyzes, and evaluates a work. It presents an argumented opinion regarding the content and structure of the work, utilizing both objective and subjective criteria. Linked to this is the Critical Comment (Comentario crítico), which is an argumentative analysis of a specific work or theme. This process examines strengths and weaknesses through interpretations, evidence, and founded judgments.
To engage in effective language use and review creation, three primary processes are identified. Analizar (To analyze) involves decomposing a text or idea into its constituent parts and identifying key ideas. Interpretar (To interpret) means giving a personal meaning or explaining the sense of a text. Argumentar (To argue) involves defending an opinion or viewpoint through reasons or evidence.
The principles guiding the steps for a review include Claridad (expressing ideas simply), Coherencia (organizing text logically), Cohesión (using connectors to join ideas), and Precisión (using exact words and limiting redundancies). Writers must also balance Objetividad y subjetividad (combining objective info with personal opinion), apply Argumentación (justifying opinions with reasons), and maintain Corrección gramatical (reviewing spelling and punctuation signs).
Grammatical Categories (Clases de Palabras)
Words are classified into several categories based on their function within a sentence. Sustantivos (Nouns) name people, animals, things, places, or ideas. They possess gender and number. They are divided into Concretos (perceivable through the senses, e.g., silla, perro, mesa) and Abstractos (ideas, feelings, or emotions, e.g., amor, alegría, felicidad). For example: "Mi mochila es grande."
Adjetivos (Adjectives) accompany the noun and indicate its qualities or characteristics. Determinantes (Determiners) accompany the noun to specify or precise its meaning, indicating gender, number, or possession. Examples include: el, la, los, las, un, una, este, esa, mi, tu, su. Pronombres (Pronouns) substitute the noun to avoid repetition, for example: "Él salió a correr."
Verbos (Verbs) express actions, states, or processes performed by the subject. They can exist in past, present, future, or infinitive forms. Adverbios (Adverbs) modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. They are categorized by: Tiempo (hoy, ayer, mañana), Lugar (aquí, allí, cerca), Cantidad (mucho, poco, muy), Afirmación (sí, también), and Negación (no, nunca, jamás). For example: "Mi mochila es muy grande."
Preposiciones (Prepositions) relate elements within a sentence and serve as links (e.g., "María juega con Tere"). Conjunciones (Conjunctions) serve to join words, phrases, or sentences (e.g., "Te llamé para que me ayudaras").
Sentence Structure: Subject and Predicate
A sentence is typically divided into the Sujeto (Subject) and the Predicado (Predicate). The Sujeto is the person, animal, or thing spoken about or performing the action. A Sujeto explícito is written or mentioned (e.g., "María canta"), while a Sujeto implícito or tácito is understood by the verb even if not written (e.g., "Canto una canción", where the subject is "yo").
The Predicado is everything said about the subject and contains the verb. A Predicado nominal uses the verbs ser, estar, or parecer to express a characteristic or state (e.g., "Ana está feliz"). A Predicado verbal uses any verb other than ser, estar, or parecer to express an action (e.g., "Ana corre en el parque"). The Núcleo del sujeto is the main noun or pronoun, and the Núcleo del predicado is the main verb of the sentence. In the example "La niña va a jugar al parque", the subject is "La niña" (nucleus: "niña") and the predicate is "va a jugar al parque" (nucleus: "va").
Expository Texts (Textos Expositivos)
Expository texts have the primary objective of transmitting information about a specific topic in a clear, ordered, and objective manner. Their purpose is to explain concepts, facts, or ideas without including personal opinions or attempts at persuasion. These are classified into three types: Históricos (reporting past events objectively), Periodísticos (informing society about current events or public interest), and Escolares (elaborated to facilitate teaching and academic learning).
Journalistic expository texts allow society to better understand their environment. Journalism (Periodismo) is defined as the process of capturing, seeking, processing, and diffusing information about daily occurrences. The different types of journalistic texts include:
Noticia: Informing of a recent or important fact; objective, fast, and formal without opinions.
Reportaje: Explaining a topic in more detail; broad, descriptive, and deep.
Entrevista: Presenting questions and answers to show the interviewee's opinions, experiences, or knowledge.
Crónica: Narrating facts in chronological order; has temporal sequence, description, and may include the author's opinions.
Columna: Always written by the same author; brief, personal, subjective, and regarding current topics.
Artículo de opinión: The author expresses and defends a viewpoint; argumentative, subjective, and seeks to convince the reader.
Editorial: Represents the opinion of the newspaper or media outlet; formal, argumentative, and expresses an institutional posture.
Rhetorical Figures (Figuras Retóricas)
Rhetorical figures are non-conventional ways of using words to provide greater beauty, expressiveness, or force to a message. Key figures include:
Metáfora (Metaphor): Relates two elements based on their similarity (e.g., "Este lugar es un paraíso").
Símil o comparación (Simile): Explicitly compares two elements (e.g., "Tus ojos brillan como estrellas").
Hipérbole (Hyperbole): Exaggerates a characteristic or situation (e_g., "Te he dicho un de veces que ordenes tu cuarto").
Personificación (Personification): Attributes human qualities to animals, objects, or ideas (e.g., "El tiempo es tirano").
Aliteración (Alliteration): Repeats similar sounds for musicality (e.g., "Mi mamá me mima").
Anáfora (Anaphora): Repeats one or several words at the start of phrases or verses (e.g., "Así estamos, así nos quedaremos").
Sinestesia (Synesthesia): Attributes physical sensations to feelings or concepts where they do not correspond (e.g., "Se oía el dulce sonido de la flauta").
Metonimia (Metonymy): Names one thing with the name of another related thing (e.g., "Leí a Cervantes").
Hipérbaton: Alters the habitual order of words in a sentence (e.g., "Del jardín las flores recogió María").
Steps to Elaborate a Review
The construction of a review follows five sequential steps. Step is Lectura atenta (Careful reading), which involves reading the work to understand it, identifying main ideas, and taking notes. Step is Organización de las ideas, where the main ideas are organized logically to create a scheme or draft considering title, author, genre, and themes. Step is Planeación de la reseña, which defines the organization, specific content aspects, purpose, recipient, and format.
Step is Composición de la reseña, the actual drafting of the text following previous notes, including an introduction, development, and conclusion with relevant subtitles. Finally, Step is Revisión de la reseña, which consists of rectifying errors in orthography, grammar, and punctuation while verifying clarity and organization. Technical data from the source interface included a time of , a count of , and a battery level of .