Geography
Key glossary terms:
Megacity - A city with a population of more than 10 million people.
Urbanisation - The increasing proportion of people living in cities.
Infrastructure - Essential facilities and services such as roads, schools, hospitals, electricity and water.
Urban Sprawl - The uncontrolled outward expansion of a city into surrounding rural areas.
Population Density - The number of people living in a particular area, usually measured in people per square kilometre.
Urban Decay - The deterioration of buildings, services and areas within a city.
Urban Renewal - Improving and redeveloping run-down areas of a city.
Urban Consolidation - Increasing population density in existing urban areas through apartments and higher-density housing.
Conurbation - A large urban area formed when neighbouring towns or cities grow and join together.
Slum - A poor urban area with overcrowded housing and inadequate basic services.
Development of urban environments:
Rural Area - An area with a small population, low population density and large amounts of farmland or open space.
Urban Area - An area with a large population, high population density and many buildings, businesses and services.
Difference between rural and urban areas - Rural areas have fewer people and services, while urban areas have more people, infrastructure and employment opportunities.
Positive impacts of urban growth - More jobs, better healthcare, improved education, more businesses and better infrastructure.
Negative impacts of urban growth - Traffic congestion, pollution, overcrowding, expensive housing and habitat destruction.
Why do people move to urban areas? - To access employment, education, healthcare, transport and other opportunities.
Distribution of urban areas:
Where are most major urban areas located? - Near coastlines, rivers, waterways and major transport routes.
Why are cities often located near water? - Water provides drinking supplies, transport, trade and opportunities for industry.
Why are flat areas suitable for urban development? - They are easier and cheaper to build houses, roads and infrastructure on.
Why do people prefer living near major cities? - They provide more employment, education, healthcare and services.
Why is Australia's population concentrated along the coast? - Coastal areas generally have better access to water, transport, employment and services.
5. Urban decline
Urban Decline - When an urban area becomes less attractive due to deteriorating buildings, businesses and services.
Causes of urban decline - Businesses closing, industries relocating, unemployment, population decline and ageing buildings.
Population Decline - A decrease in the number of people living in an area.
Economic impact of urban decline - Businesses lose customers, unemployment increases and investment decreases.
Social impact of urban decline - Fewer services, abandoned buildings and reduced community activity.
Environmental impact of urban decline - Buildings and public spaces can become poorly maintained.
Urban Renewal vs Urban Decline - Urban renewal improves run-down areas, while urban decline is the deterioration of those areas.6. Population pyramids
Population Pyramid - A graph showing the age and gender structure of a population.
Expanding Population - A population with a wide base, indicating many young people and usually a high birth rate.
Stable Population - A population with relatively balanced age groups and a relatively steady population size.
Diminishing Population - A population with a narrow base, indicating low birth rates and an ageing or potentially shrinking population.
Wide Base - Indicates a large proportion of young people and usually a high birth rate.
Narrow Base - Indicates a low birth rate and fewer young people.
Wide Top - Indicates a larger proportion of elderly people and an ageing population.
Population Pyramid Left Side - Usually represents males.
Population Pyramid Right Side - Usually represents females.
How to interpret a population pyramid - Examine its base, middle, top and differences between males and females.7. Challenges facing different countries
Less Developed Countries (LDCs) - Countries with lower levels of economic development and often limited infrastructure and services.
Challenges in LDCs - Poor sanitation, overcrowding, unemployment, limited healthcare, slums and poor infrastructure.
Transition Countries - Countries experiencing economic and social changes as they develop.
Challenges in transition countries - Rapid urbanisation, pollution, traffic congestion, inequality and pressure on housing.
Developed Countries (DCs) - Countries with high levels of economic development and generally well-developed infrastructure and services.
Challenges in developed countries - Expensive housing, urban sprawl, traffic congestion, ageing infrastructure and pollution.
Main difference between LDCs and DCs - LDCs often struggle with basic services and infrastructure, while DCs often face issues such as high living costs and congestion.8. Urban slums
Urban Slum - A densely populated urban area with poor housing and limited access to basic services.
Social Challenges of Slums - Overcrowding, limited education, poor healthcare, inadequate sanitation and safety concerns.
Environmental Challenges of Slums - Water pollution, poor waste management, air pollution and flooding risks.
Economic Challenges of Slums - Unemployment, low wages, poverty and limited business opportunities.
Informal Employment - Work that is not officially registered or protected through normal employment systems.
Poor Sanitation - A lack of proper toilets, sewage systems and waste disposal.
Why do slums develop? - Rapid urbanisation, poverty, unemployment and a lack of affordable housing.9. Urban settlement patterns in Australia
Population Distribution - The way people are spread across a geographical area.
Australian Population Distribution - Most Australians live in coastal areas, particularly along the eastern and south-eastern coast.
Why is inland Australia sparsely populated? - Dry conditions, limited water, extreme temperatures and fewer employment opportunities.
Population Concentration - When large numbers of people live in a particular area.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Population Distribution - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples live throughout Australia, including cities, regional centres and remote communities.
Why are some remote communities important? - They support cultural connections, family relationships and connections to Country.
Urban Settlement Pattern - The way towns and cities are distributed across a region.10. Comparing the USA and Australia
Conurbation - A large continuous urban area formed when neighbouring cities and towns grow together.
BosWash - A major urban corridor in the USA connecting Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington.
SanSan - An urban corridor along the Californian coast connecting cities including San Francisco, Los Angeles and San Diego.
Australian Urban Corridor - A connected or closely spaced series of urban areas, such as the Sydney-Newcastle region.
USA vs Australia - The USA has a larger population and more extensive urban regions, while Australia's population is concentrated in a smaller number of major coastal cities.11. Characteristics of European cities
Historic City Centres - Older parts of European cities containing historic buildings and streets.
European Urban Density - Many European cities have high population densities, especially in central areas.
European Public Transport - Many cities have extensive train, tram and bus networks.
Mixed-Use Development - Areas where housing, shops, businesses and services are located together.
European Street Layouts - Many historic European cities have narrow and winding streets because they developed before cars became common.
Cycling Infrastructure - Dedicated bike lanes and facilities that encourage cycling instead of driving.12. Consequences of urban growth
Social Consequences - Effects on people and communities, such as overcrowding, improved education and employment opportunities.
Environmental Consequences - Effects on nature, such as pollution, habitat destruction and increased waste.
Economic Consequences - Effects on money and businesses, such as job creation, investment and increased housing costs.
Positive Social Consequences - Better healthcare, education, employment and access to services.
Negative Social Consequences - Overcrowding, housing shortages and increased pressure on public services.
Positive Environmental Consequences - Urban parks, green spaces and improved public transport can support more sustainable cities.
Negative Environmental Consequences - Pollution, habitat destruction, waste and loss of farmland.
Positive Economic Consequences - More businesses, jobs, tourism and investment.
Negative Economic Consequences - Higher living costs, expensive housing and increased infrastructure expenses.
13. Newcastle case study
Newcastle - A coastal city in NSW that has experienced urban growth, decline, renewal and consolidation.
Newcastle East End - An area that experienced urban decline, particularly around Hunter Street Mall.
Examples of Urban Decay in Newcastle - Empty shops, underused buildings, reduced business activity and deteriorating streetscapes.
Impacts of Urban Decay in Newcastle - Reduced employment, fewer customers for businesses, abandoned buildings and reduced community activity.
Newcastle Urban Renewal - Redevelopment and improvement of run-down areas to attract residents, businesses and visitors.
Newcastle East End Village Project - A revitalisation project aiming to improve Hunter Street and surrounding public spaces.
Examples of Newcastle Urban Renewal - Improved footpaths, lighting, landscaping, cycling infrastructure and public spaces.
Urban Consolidation in Newcastle - Building apartments and redeveloping existing urban land to increase housing density.
Benefits of Urban Consolidation in Newcastle - Better use of existing infrastructure, increased housing supply and reduced pressure for outward expansion.
Recreational Spaces - Public areas such as parks, beaches, sporting facilities and walking tracks used for leisure.
Importance of Recreational Spaces in Newcastle - They improve physical health, social connections, tourism and environmental quality.
Examples of Newcastle Recreational Spaces - Foreshore Park, Nobbys Beach and King Edward Park.
Newcastle High Speed Rail - A proposed faster rail connection between Newcastle and Sydney.
Proposed High Speed Rail Journey - Approximately one hour between Newcastle and Sydney.
Positive Impacts of High Speed Rail - Better transport, tourism, employment opportunities, investment and access to Sydney.
Negative Impacts of High Speed Rail - Possible pressure on housing, infrastructure and local services, along with construction disruption.
Why could High Speed Rail increase Newcastle's population? - People may choose to live in Newcastle while travelling to Sydney for employment or education.14. Geographical maps, graphs and data
Bar Graph - A graph used to compare different categories or locations.
Line Graph - A graph used to show changes over time.
Choropleth Map - A map using different colours or shades to display geographical data.
Population Pyramid - A graph showing the age and gender structure of a population.
Map Legend - Explains the symbols and colours used on a map.
Map Scale - Shows the relationship between distance on a map and actual distance.
North Arrow - Shows the direction of north on a map.
Grid Reference - A system used to locate places on a map.
Coordinates - Numbers used to identify a specific geographical location.
Highest - The greatest value in a set of data.
Lowest - The smallest value in a set of data.
Increase - When a value becomes larger.
Decrease - When a value becomes smaller.
Stable - When a value stays relatively consistent.
Uneven Distribution - When people or features are not spread equally across an area.15. PEEEL writing structure
PEEEL - A writing structure used to create detailed geographical answers.
Point - State your main argument or answer to the question.
Evidence - Provide facts, statistics or geographical examples to support your point.
Explain - Explain how or why your evidence supports your point.
Elaborate - Add further detail or discuss another consequence.
Link - Connect your paragraph back to the original question.
Geographical Evidence - Facts, examples, statistics or observations used to support an argument.
Why use PEEEL? - It helps create organised, detailed answers that explain geographical ideas.