THEME 4 > Origins & growth of cities

Origins and Growth of Cities

  • Revolutions leading to urban development:

    • Agricultural Revolution (7000 BC):

    • Development of agriculture led to Neolithic settlements (e.g., Jarmo in Iraq, Jericho in Israel).

    • Layout of settlements indicates social structures.

    • Pre-industrial Revolution:

    • Initiation of urban centers.

    • Industrial Revolution (18th-19th centuries):

    • Rise of urban industrial cities, setting the stage for modern cities.

    • Fourth Industrial Revolution:

    • Contemporary shifts in technology affecting urbanization.

  • Task:

    • Identify developing and developed cities across revolutions.

    • Examine spatial similarities, differences in built and spatial forms.

    • Illustrate the 10 characteristics of urban civilization through time.

Ten Characteristics of Urban Civilization

Primary Characteristics:

  1. Size and Density:

    • Urban areas show larger populations which lead to social integration.

  2. Full-time Specialization of Labour:

    • Increased division of labor and specialization in production.

    • Established systems for distribution and exchange.

  3. Concentration of Surplus:

    • Systems developed for managing surplus production from farming and artisanship.

  4. Class-structured Society:

    • Existence of a ruling class (religious, political, military) directing societal functions.

  5. State Organization:

    • Structured political entities formed with governance based on residence.

Secondary Characteristics:

  1. Monumental Public Works:

    • Collective projects like temples, palaces, and irrigation systems.

  2. Long-distance Trade:

    • Expansion of trade networks beyond urban centers.

  3. Standardized Monumental Artwork:

    • Development of art forms for cultural and aesthetic expression.

  4. Writing:

    • Emergence of writing aided in social organization and management.

  5. Arithmetic, Geometry, and Astronomy:

    • Initiation of predictive sciences and engineering.

Preconditions for Pre-industrial Urban Growth

  • Population Size:

    • A requisite permanent population in one location.

  • Environmental Factors:

    • Topography, climate, and natural resources impact urban development.

  • Technological Influences:

    • Innovations for river management and flood control critical for growth.

  • Social Organization:

    • Complexity of organization required for increased population and trade.

Theories of Urban Origins

  1. Hydraulic Theory:

    • Importance of irrigation for agriculture and urbanization.

    • Characteristics of hydraulic society:

      • Promotes agricultural intensification.

      • Necessitates large-scale cooperation.

  2. Economic Theory:

    • Growth of trading networks driving urbanization.

    • Need for increased production and consumption.

  3. Military Theories:

    • Urban centers created for protection against threats.

    • Agglomeration facilitates defense and specialization.

  4. Religious Theories:

    • Urban development linked to power of religious elites managing surplus.

Early Urban Settlements

  • Mesopotamia (3500 BC):

    • First urban centers near Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

  • Egypt:

    • Debate on urban diffusion vs independent development.

    • Spread of agriculture and city-building along the Fertile Crescent.

  • Indus Valley (circa 2500 BC):

    • Harappa civilization linked to advanced urban planning.

  • Yellow River:

    • Birthplace of Shang civilization (1800 BC).

  • Mesoamerica (circa 200 BC):

    • Earliest New World cities in southern Mexico and Central America.

Post-Industrial Urbanism

  • Transition of focus from manufacturing to service-oriented economies.

  • Changes in social structure favoring professionals.

  • Increased emphasis on R&D and technological changes.

  • The rise of information systems and intellectual technology.

Ecological Models of the City

  • Models are simplifications to identify common urban characteristics.

  • Notable models:

    • Burgess’s Concentric Zone Model (1925)

    • Central zones reflect employment concentrations:

      • Zone I: Central Business District,

      • Zone II: Zone of transition,

      • Zone III: Independent workers' homes,

      • Zone IV: Better residences,

      • Zone V: Commuter's zone.

    • Hoyt’s Sector Model (1939)

    • Land use based on transportation corridors affecting urban growth directions.

Land Use Models in Economically Less Developed Countries (LEDCs)

  • Poorest housing is generally found on urban edges.

  • Settlements like squatter towns are prevalent due to economic constraints.

Major Actors in the Production of the Built Environment

  • Land-Development Industry:

    • Comprised of builders, architects, developers, and speculators.

  • Speculators:

    • Invest in land foreseeing future value increases often leading to displacement.

  • Real-Estate Agents:

    • Engage in land market manipulations and block-busting practices.

  • Financial Institutions:

    • Influence urban development through lending practices, often leading to red-lining.

Privately Owned Public Space

  • Rise of privately owned spaces that appear public but limit social interaction.

  • Privatization of public space has implications for democracy and civic life, creating class segregation.

  • Example: Gated communities in South Africa as a response to security concerns.

Urbanisation and Economic Growth

  • Urbanization linked to various factors:

    1. Economic activity types.

    2. Land ownership influences.

    3. Cultural lifestyle preferences.

    4. Government policies.

  • Tokyo as a global megacity exemplifies successful urbanization but faces significant challenges such as high living costs and congestion.

Stages of Urban Development

  1. Urbanisation: Growth of urban areas at the expense of rural areas.

  2. Suburbanisation: Expansion of commuter belts around urban cores.

  3. Disurbanisation: Population decline in urban cores.

  4. Reurbanisation: Core areas begin to regain population.

Types of Urbanised Regions

  1. City-Region: A central area serving local regions.

  2. Conurbation: Merged urban settlements.

  3. Urban Field: Core urban area with surrounding outskirts.

  4. Megalopolis: A chain of adjacent metropolitan areas.

Importance of Secondary Cities

  • Secondary cities: Medium-sized urban centers that serve as administrative hubs.

  • Significant portion of the global population resides in secondary cities, influencing national systems.

  • South Africa aims for strategic development of secondary cities to promote balanced urbanization.

Challenges and Solutions for Secondary Cities

  • Need for improved municipal capacities for long-term strategies.

  • Importance of connecting secondary cities to national rural development initiatives.

  • A coordinated national strategy required to exploit strengths while addressing vulnerabilities.