Unit 4 Notes: Organization of Political Space Part 2

Ethnic Groups in Southwest Asia

• Ethnic boundaries in Southwest Asia, particularly in countries like Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, do not align with national borders.

Language Boundaries

Importance of Language in Cultural Boundaries

• Language serves as a critical cultural characteristic for delineating boundaries, particularly in Europe.

• European languages are notable for their substantial literary traditions, formal rules of grammar, and spelling.

Historical Context

• The French language played an essential role in the unification of France as a cohesive state during the 17th century.

• Italy and Germany also emerged as unified states in the 19th century based on the languages spoken by their populations.

• The movement advocating for national identities based on language gained momentum throughout Europe in the 20th century.

Treaty of Versailles

• The Treaty of Versailles impacted the borders and ethnic territories in Europe post-World War I.

• Important geographical regions included:
    - Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Germany, Poland, France, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Etc.

Division of Cyprus

• Geographic illustration of Cyprus indicating:
    - The division into Turkish areas and Greek areas since 1974.
    - Presence of a UN Buffer Zone.
    - Major cities include Nicosia, Larnaca, and others, with influences from Greece and Turkey.

Boundaries Inside States

Local Government Boundaries

• Within countries, local government boundaries can separate different nationalities or ethnic groups.

• Boundaries can also be drawn for partisan advantage to benefit a political party.

Unitary and Federal States

Overview of Government Structures

• States have two primary forms of government structure: unitary and federal systems.

• A unitary state centralizes most power with national government officials, while a federal state delegates significant authority to local government entities.

Characteristics of Unitary States

• Unitary systems are more prevalent in Europe.

• Often in multinational states, unitary systems impose the values of the dominant nationality onto others.

Characteristics of Federal States

• In a federal structure, such as in the United States, local governments have autonomy to enact their own laws.

• Federal systems are beneficial for accommodating different nationalities, particularly those living in distinct geographic regions.

• Federal systems are also practical in large states where the national capital can be remote from local regions.

Case Study: France

Unitary Government Tradition

• France exemplifies a nation-state with a strong history of unitary governance where the national government heavily influences local government decisions.

• The primary local government unit is known as the département, with the commune as a secondary tier.

• Recent years have seen an increase in the legal powers afforded to regions and municipalities.

Case Study: Poland

Transition to Federalism

• Poland transitioned from a unitary government to a federal system after communism ended.

• The 1989 constitution established 2,400 new municipalities with directly elected officials.

• The national government transferred control of public assets, including housing and transportation, to these municipalities.

Electoral Geography

Legislative District Boundaries

• Legislative district boundaries are periodically redrawn to ensure roughly equal populations across districts.

• Migration leads to population shifts necessitating these boundary adjustments.

• In most European nations, independent commissions handle the redrawing of boundaries, while in U.S. states, the responsibility often lies with the state legislature.

Gerrymandering

• The term gerrymandering refers to redrawing legislative boundaries to benefit the ruling party.

Types of Gerrymandering

Forms of Gerrymandering

• Gerrymandering manifests in three forms:
    - Wasted vote: Spreads opposition voters across many districts, making them a minority.
    - Excess vote: Concentrates the opposition into a few districts.
    - Stacked vote: Links disparate areas with similar voters via irregularly shaped districts.

Case Study: Florida and Georgia

Observations of Stacked Vote Gerrymandering

• Recent gerrymandering practices in Florida and Georgia predominantly feature stacked vote designs.

• This technique aims to enhance the election of ethnic minorities.

• Due to gerrymandering, competition for Congressional seats has decreased, with only a fraction being competitive.

Cooperation among States

Political and Military Cooperation

• Notable organizations:
    - United Nations
    - Regional military alliances

Economic Cooperation

• Example: The European Union

United Nations Members

Membership Changes Over Time

• The United Nations expanded from 51 original members in 1945 to 191 members by 2003.

• Patterns of membership growth included:
    - 1940s: Added 8
    - 1950s: Added 24
    - 1960s: Added 42
    - 1970s: Added 25
    - 1980s: Added 7
    - 1990s: Added 31
    - 2000s: Added 3

United Nations Forces

Peacekeeping Operations

• U.N. members vote to form peacekeeping forces and call on nations to contribute troops.

• During the Cold War, peacekeeping was often hampered by veto power from permanent Security Council members.

• The U.N. relies on member countries for troop contributions, often resulting in insufficient forces for effective peacekeeping.

• Despite these challenges, the U.N. serves as a forum for global dialogue among virtually all states.

Super Powers in History

Post-World War II Alliances

• Many states joined regional military alliances post-World War II.

• During the Cold War, the U.S. and the Soviet Union emerged as the two superpowers.

• Historically, more than two superpowers existed during earlier conflicts (e.g., Napoleonic Wars, pre-World War I).

Super Powers Before WWII

Temporary Alliances and Balance of Power

• Major powers formed temporary alliances due to the absence of a single dominant state.

• The balance of power concept: A condition where states have roughly equal strength, preventing any one state from overpowering others.

• The British often entered alliances to sustain this balance.

Era of Two Superpowers

Bipolar Balance Post-World War II

• The superpower balance became bipolar with the U.S. and the Soviet Union after World War II.

• Other states' influences diminished, relegated to ally or satellite roles.

• Both superpowers indicated a willingness to use military force to maintain ally compliance.

Military Cooperation in Europe

NATO and Warsaw Pact

• Following WWII, most European states joined either the NATO or Warsaw Pact military alliances.

• These alliances were established to reinforce a bipolar power structure in Europe.

• Post-Cold War, NATO expanded its membership rather than disbanding.

• The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) can mobilize member state troops but does not command armed forces.

Other Regional Organizations

Cooperation Across Regions

• The Organization of American States (OAS) encompasses all Western Hemisphere states, promoting links among them.

• The Organization for African Unity (OAU) sought to end colonialism on the African continent.

• The Commonwealth of Nations fosters economic and cultural cooperation among former British colonies.

Economic Cooperation

Shift in Global Power Dynamics

• The end of the Cold War in 1992 marked a transition to a multi-superpower world.

• Contemporary power structure prioritizes economic power over military strength, with no single dominant superpower.

The European Union and NATO

• NATO and the EU have seen significant expansion as former Eastern Bloc nations integrated following the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and COMECON.

European Boundary Changes

Twentieth Century Evolution

• European borders have undergone extensive alterations between 1914 to 2003 with major changes in Germany due to the world wars and the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Terrorism

Types of Terrorism

• Terrorism involves actions by individuals and organizations, alongside state-sponsored terrorism seen in countries like Libya, Afghanistan, Iraq, and Iran.

US Terrorism Today (2001 Map)

• Various regions in the U.S. have been highlighted according to levels of terrorism incidents as of 2001, showing geographic disparities.

Terrorism by Individuals and Organizations

Shifts in Public Perception

• The U.S. faced several terrorist incidents in the late 20th century, but it wasn't until the September 11, 2001, attacks that a heightened sense of threat emerged.

American Terrorists

Notable Cases

• Theodore J. Kaczynski (Unabomber): Responsible for three deaths and 23 injuries due to mailed bombs aimed at perceived enemies harming the environment.

• Timothy J. McVeigh: Motivated by governmental grievances, perpetrated the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995 resulting in 168 deaths.

World Trade Center

Before and After September 11, 2001

• Satellite imagery comparing the World Trade Center site before (June 30, 2000) and after (September 15, 2001) the 9/11 attacks illustrates the physical devastation.

State-Sponsored Terrorism

Levels of State Involvement

• States participate in terrorism at three levels:
    1. Providing sanctuary for terrorists.
    2. Supplying weapons, funds, and intelligence.
    3. Planning terrorist attacks.

• In response to the 9/11 attacks, the U.S. accused Afghanistan, Iraq, and Iran of various levels of support for terrorism.

Libya

Incidents and Retaliation

• In 1986, Libyan-sponsored terrorists attacked a nightclub in Berlin, leading to U.S. retaliation via bombings targeting Colonel Qaddafi's regime.

• The Pan Am Flight 103 bombing was attributed to Libyan agents, culminating in trials under international scrutiny.

Afghanistan 1979

Taliban and the Soviet Invasion

• The Taliban, establishing power in Afghanistan in 1995, enforced strict Islamic law amidst ongoing civil conflict.

• The Soviet Union intervened starting in 1979, deploying troops against fundamentalist mujahedeen rebels.

Afghanistan 2001

Post-U.S. Invasion Developments

• The U.S. invaded Afghanistan in 2001 to dismantle the Taliban government, which was providing sanctuary to al-Qaeda, following the 9/11 attacks.

• The invasion precipitated further conflict among Afghanistan's ethnic factions.

Iraq

Justifications for U.S. Intervention

• The 2003 invasion aimed to overthrow Saddam Hussein under claims of developing weapons of mass destruction and links to terrorism.

• Historical context includes Iraq's previous aggression against Kuwait and the subsequent Gulf War.

Iraq 2003

International Reaction

• The 2003 invasion faced skepticism from many U.N. members, with arguments about insufficient evidence regarding WMDs and Saddam’s ties to terrorism.

Iran

U.S.-Iran Relations and Conflicts

• Tension dates back to 1979 with the overthrow of the U.S. supported Shah.

• Iran and Iraq engaged in conflict over the Shatt al-Arab, leading to significant casualties and heavy resource depletion.

Other Terrorist States

List of Considered States

• Various nations considered state sponsors of terrorism by the U.S. include:
    - Yemen
    - Sudan
    - Iran
    - Syria
    - North Korea