Nationalism in India: Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements

The Concept of Nationalism in India and Europe

In Europe, the concept of nationalism was inextricably linked to the formation of nation-states. It emerged from a fundamental human need for distinct identities and a sense of belonging to a specific culture. This national identity was fostered and reinforced through the creation of new symbols, icons, revolutionary ideas, and songs that defined the borders and character of the people.

Nationalism in India, while sharing the goal of identity, functioned primarily as an anti-colonial movement. Unity was discovered not through a pre-existing statehood, but through the shared experience of fighting colonial oppressors. Diverse groups and classes, each with varying ideas and suffering under different forms of oppression, eventually coalesced against a common enemy. While it took significant time for these disparate groups to unite, Mahatma Gandhi eventually succeeded in bringing them under a single banner, though Indian nationalism underwent numerous transformations before this unification was realized.

The Impact of the First World War and Economic Hardships

The First World War $(1914 \text{ -- } 1918)$ served as a definitive turning point in the history of the Indian National Movement. The conflict created massive economic problems for the Indian population, as India was forced to finance British war expenditures. This was achieved through the implementation of increased taxes, custom duties, and the introduction of a higher income tax. Between the years $1914$ and $1918$, there was an alarming rise in the prices of essential goods, causing great hardship for common citizens.

In rural areas, the misery was compounded by forced recruitment into the armed forces. Furthermore, acute food shortages were caused by crop failures in the periods of $1918 \text{ -- } 1919$ and $1920 \text{ -- } 1921$. These famines were followed by deadly epidemics. According to the Census of $1921$, more than $13 \text{ million}$ people perished due to the combination of famine and disease. Politically, these disasters shocked the foundations of imperialism in India and birthed a new generation of nationalists seeking novel means to overthrow British rule.

Mahatma Gandhi and the Philosophy of Satyagraha

Following his return to India from South Africa in $1915$, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi introduced a novel method of mass agitation known as Satyagraha. Having successfully utilized this method against the racist government in South Africa, he applied it to the British regime. Satyagraha is defined as non-violent, non-cooperation against an oppressive, high-handed, and unjust government. It is characterized as "soul-force," where truth is the very substance of the soul.

Gandhi exhorted the Indian people to exercise five specific virtues: spinning, the removal of untouchability, non-consumption of alcohol, Hindu-Muslim unity, and equality. The philosophy posits that if a cause is just and the fight is against injustice, physical force is unnecessary. A Satyagrahi wins through the power of truth and non-violence, appealing to the conscience of the oppressor rather than seeking their destruction. Gandhi famously stated, "Satyagraha is not physical force. A satyagrahi does not inflict pain on the adversary; he does not seek his destruction. In the use of satyagraha, there is no ill-will whatever."

Early Satyagraha Movements: Champaran, Kheda, and Ahmedabad

The Champaran Satyagraha $(1917)$ took place in northwestern Bihar, where peasants suffered under the oppression of European indigo planters. Gandhi, joined by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, led a campaign of non-violent protest. This resulted in the appointment of an enquiry committee in $1917$, with Gandhi as a member, eventually leading to the Champaran Agrarian Act which freed peasants from the planters' control.

The Kheda Campaign $(1918)$ was located in the Kaira district of Gujarat. Following a severe drought and crop failure, the Bombay government insisted on extracting land revenue. Gandhi organized the peasants to defy these laws, and despite many being imprisoned, the government eventually conceded to the peasants' demands in June $1918$.

The Ahmedabad Mill Strike $(1918)$ involved a dispute between cotton mill workers and owners. Gandhi intervened, advising workers to strike and demand a $35\%$ increase in wages. He undertook a fast unto death to strengthen the resolve of the strikers. On the fourth day of his fast, the mill owners relented and granted the requested $35\%$ raise.

The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy

In $1919$, the Imperial Legislative Council passed the Rowlatt Act despite unanimous opposition from Indian members. This act granted the government the power to detain political prisoners without trial for up to $2 \text{ years}$. Gandhi launched a non-violent movement against this "Black Act," beginning with a hartal on April $6$. Rallies and strikes followed, leading the British to arrest local leaders in Amritsar and Gandhi himself at Palwal.

The tension culminated in the Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy on April $13, 1919$. On the day of the Baisakhi festival, a peaceful crowd gathered in the enclosed Jallianwala Bagh ground; many were villagers unaware of Brigadier General Dyer's ban on public meetings. Dyer entered the area, blocked the only exit, and ordered his men to fire on the unarmed crowd until they ran out of ammunition. Approximately $1,000$ defenceless people were killed. Dyer later stated, "I had made up my mind that I would do all men to death if they were going to continue the meeting." This incident became a massive turning point, sparking strikes and attacks on government buildings across North India.

The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement $(1920 \text{ -- } 1922)$

Gandhi sought to unite Hindus and Muslims by supporting the Khilafat Movement. Muslims were protesting the dismemberment of the Turkish Empire and the lack of protection for the Caliph (spiritual head) and holy places. In his $1909$ book Hind Swaraj, Gandhi argued that British rule in India survived only because of Indian cooperation. He proposed that the withdrawal of this cooperation would cause the Raj to collapse within a year.

The Non-Cooperation programme was adopted at the Nagpur Session of the Congress in December $1920$ and officially launched in January $1921$. The programme included the surrender of titles, resignation from civil, police, and army services, and the boycott of schools, courts, elections, and foreign goods. In towns, the movement saw thousands of students leave government-aided schools for newly formed national institutions. The boycott of foreign cloth was particularly successful; imports fell from $102 \text{ crores}$ in $1921$ to $57 \text{ crores}$ in $1922$. However, the movement slowed as poor people could not afford expensive Khadi cloth, and there were insufficient Indian institutions to replace British ones.

Rebellion in the Countryside and Tribal Regions

In Awadh, Baba Ram Chandra, a Sanyasi who had been an indentured laborer in Fiji, led a peasant movement against the high rents and "begar" (forced labor without payment) imposed by Talukdars and landlords. Following a tour by Jawaharlal Nehru in June $1920$, the Oudh Kisan Sabha was formed. By October $1920$, it had $300$ branches. However, the movement turned violent in $1921$ as peasants attacked houses and looted bazaars.

In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement emerged led by Alluri Sitaram Raju. Raju claimed special powers, such as surviving bullet shots and making astrological predictions. The tribals rose up because colonial laws had restricted their traditional forest rights, introduced taxation, and forced them into debt through middlemen. While Raju was inspired by Gandhi and persuaded followers to wear Khadi, he believed that liberation required physical force. He was captured and executed in $1924$.

In the tea gardens of Assam, the Inland Emigration Act of $1859$ prevented plantation workers from leaving without rarely granted permission. For them, Swaraj meant the right to move freely. During the Non-Cooperation movement, thousands left the plantations but were often caught by police and beaten during railway and steamer strikes.

The Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation and the Rise of the Revolutionaries

On February $5, 1922$, a procession of $3,000$ peasants at Chauri Chaura was fired upon by police. The crowd retaliated by burning the police station, killing $22$ policemen. Gandhi immediately suspended the movement on February $12$, believing that the Indian people were not yet ready for a non-violent struggle. This decision was heavily criticized by leaders like Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, and Subhash Chandra Bose.

Following the suspension, the Swaraj Party was formed within the Congress by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru to contest Council elections. Simultaneously, the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) was founded in $1928$ at Ferozeshah Kotla in Delhi by leaders including Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, and Jatin Das. They targeted British power symbols, notably when Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutta threw a bomb in the Legislative Assembly in April $1929$. Bhagat Singh was executed at age $23$, famously declaring, "Revolution is the inalienable right of mankind."

The Road to Civil Disobedience: The Simon Commission and Purna Swaraj

Two factors revitalized Indian politics in the late $1920s$: the Great Economic Depression, which crushed agricultural prices, and the appointment of the Simon Commission in November $1927$. The commission, tasked with reporting on India's readiness for self-government, contained no Indian members. When it arrived in $1928$, it was met with the slogan "Go back Simon." In response, Motilal Nehru drafted the Nehru Report in $1928$, proposing dominion status.

At the Lahore Session in December $1929$, the Congress, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, adopted the goal of "Purna Swaraj" or Complete Independence. They declared January $26, 1930$, as Independence Day, where citizens would pledge that India must sever the British connection. Gandhi chose the Salt Tax as the focal point for the next movement, calling it the most "inhuman tax" as it affected the basic necessities of the poor.

The Dandi March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

On March $12, 1930$, Gandhi began the Dandi March with $78$ followers, walking $240 \text{ miles}$ from Sabarmati Ashram to the coast at Dandi. On April $6$, he manufactured salt illegally, inaugurating the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM). This act sparked nation-wide defiance of salt laws. In Tamil Nadu, C. Rajagopalachari led a march from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam, while K. Kelappan marched from Calicut to Payannur.

In the North West Frontier Province, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (the "Frontier Gandhi") led the Khudai Khidmatgars, or Red Shirts. Their mass demonstration in Peshawar was notable because soldiers of the Gharhwal regiment refused to fire on the unarmed crowd. The British responded with mass arrests, including Jawaharlal Nehru and eventually Gandhi on May $4, 1930$. One of the most violent confrontations occurred during the Dharasana Satyagraha on May $21, 1930$, where $2,000$ volunteers led by Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib, and Manilal Gandhi were brutally lathi-charged by police.

The End of the Movement and the Limits of Participation

The movement was temporarily suspended by the Gandhi-Irwin Pact on March $5, 1931$, which promised Dominion Status. Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference in London but returned disappointed and resumed the CDM in $1932$. The movement finally ended in $1934$. Various groups participated for different reasons: rich peasants (Jats and Patidars) fought against high revenue, while the business class, having formed FICCI in $1927$, sought protection against foreign imports.

However, some groups remained aloof. The "Untouchables"—whom Gandhi called Harijans—demanded separate electorates. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar formed the Depressed Classes Association in $1930$ and clashed with Gandhi, eventually leading to the Poona Pact of September $1932$, which gave Dalits reserved seats but not separate electorates. Many Muslims also felt alienated from the Congress after the mid-$1920s$, fearing Hindu domination and the loss of their cultural identity, particularly after the All Parties Conference of $1928$ failed to reach a compromise on representation.

Questions & Discussion

Question: Who passed the Rowlatt Act and how did Indians react? Answer: The British Government passed the Rowlatt Act through the Imperial Legislative Council. Indian members unanimously opposed it. In response, Gandhi launched a non-violent movement with a hartal on April $6, 1919$, followed by rallies, strikes, and shop closures.

Question: What was the significance of the Dandi March? Answer: The Dandi March was the inaugural act of the Civil Disobedience Movement. Gandhi walked $240 \text{ miles}$ to manufacture illegal salt, demonstrating a mass defiance of British law that aroused the entire nation and led to over $60,000$ people offering Satyagraha.

Question: Why did the Non-Cooperation Movement fail in towns? Answer: It slowed down because Khadi cloth was more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth, which the poor could not afford. Additionally, there were not enough Indian institutions (schools, courts) to replace the British ones that were being boycotted, forcing students and lawyers to return to their original posts.

Question: What did Swaraj mean to the plantation workers of Assam? Answer: For these workers, Swaraj meant the freedom of movement and the right to return to their home villages, which had been denied to them under the Inland Emigration Act of $1859$.