Role of Women and Women's Organisations in India

Early Periods

Rig Vedic ( $1500\,BC \text{ – } 1000\,BC$ ): Women held respectable status and freedom. Notable poets included Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa, and Lopamudra.
Later Vedic ( $1000\,BC \text{ – } 600\,BC$ ): Status declined to that of "Shudras." Women lost property rights (except 'stridhana') and political participation. Exceptions included Gargi and Maitreyi.
Jainism and Buddhism ( $600\,BC \text{ – } 200\,BC$ ): Promotion of liberal lives and the establishment of the Bhikshuni Sangha.

Medieval and Colonial Eras

Medieval: Rise of social evils like female infanticide, child marriage, and Jauhar. Status improvements occurred via the Bhakti and Sufi movements led by figures like Guru Nanak and Ramanuja.
Colonial: Modern reformers like Ram Mohan Roy campaigned for change. Key laws included the Bengal Sati Regulation (1829), Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act (1856), and Age of Consent Act (1891).

Constitutional Provisions

Major Legislation

Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961.
Commission of Sati Prevention Act, 1986.
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005.
Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013.
Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023: Reserves one-third of seats in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies for women.

Early Organisations

Women’s India Association (WIA, 1917): Founded by Annie Besant and Margaret Cousins; first to bring Indian women together for the franchise.
National Council For Women In India (NCWI, 1925): Provided a voice in international forums.
All India Women’s Conference (AIWC, 1926): Founded by Margaret Cousins; established Lady Harding College for Women in 1932.

Post-Independence Movements

Telangana Movement ( $1946 \text{ – } 1951$ ): Peasant conflict involving women like Chityala Ailamma.
Anti-Dowry Movements (1980s): Lead by "Dahej Virodhi Chetna Manch" in Delhi.
Chipko Movement (1972): Adivasi women in Tehri Garhwal protecting forests; spearheaded by Sunderlal Bahuguna.
Narmada Bachao Movement: Led by Medha Patkar against displacement from the Sardar Sarovar Dam.

Economic and Social Groups

SEWA (1972): Founded by Ela Bhatt; first trade union for unorganized women workers.
AIDWA (1981): Left-affiliated pan-Indian group for political and legal rights.
Swadhina (1986): Focuses on sustainable livelihoods and eco-friendly practices.

Current Context

Statistics: Female labour force participation was $37\%$ in 2022-23. AISHE (2021-22) reports 73 female teachers per 100 male teachers.
Barriers: Negative parental attitudes and inadequate school sanitation facilities.

Government Initiatives

Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP): Promotes gender equality and education.
STEM Schemes: Vigyan Jyoti (high school level), GATI (institutional framework), SERB-POWER (research funding), and WEST (2022).
BioCARe: Encourages female scientists in biotechnology research.

Leadership and Representation

Voter Participation: Women constitute $49\%$ of voters.
Representation: 74 women were elected to the 18th Lok Sabha (a dip from 78 in the 17th Lok Sabha).
Local Governance: The 73rd Amendment provides $33\%$ reservation in Panchayats. Examples of leadership include Arati Devi and Chhavi Rajawat.

Obstacles to Empowerment

Sarpanchpati: Lack of actual power despite holding office.
Violence: NCRB reported a increase in crimes against women from $2,28,650$ in 2011 to $4,28,278$ in 2021 ( $87\%$ rise).

Agriculture (Census 2015-16)

Women represent $30.33\%$ of total cultivators and $40.67\%$ of agricultural labour.
Only $13.95\%$ of operational holdings are operated by women.
Initiatives: Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP) and the ICAR-Central Institute for Women in Agriculture.

Women-Led Development

Armed Forces

Supreme Court Ruling (2020): Granted women officers permanent commissions with retrospective effect.
Operation Sindoor (May 2025): Historically led by Colonel Sofiya Qureshi and Wing Commander Vyomika Singh, signaling growing leadership roles in national security.