Government Structure and Public Sector Economics

Separation of Powers: The core intent of the Constitution is to establish a separation of powers, a concept heavily influenced by Montesquieu, to prevent tyranny.
- Legislative Branch (Congress): Makes laws, composed of the Senate and House of Representatives.
- Executive Branch: Carries out laws, led by the President and Cabinet.
- Judicial Branch: Interprets laws.
Checks and Balances: The system ensures a balance between the branches, with checks on each part to prevent duplication of function and dictatorial government. Actions often require approval from two or three parts.
- Example: Congress allocates money for a dam, the Executive (e.g., Interior Department) builds it. If the dam infringes on rights (e.g., property rights without due process), the Judicial branch can rule it unconstitutional.
- Congress allocates money but cannot spend it. The Executive spends money but cannot allocate it. Neither can violate the Constitution; the Judiciary ensures this.

Members: $435$ members, established by law in $1911$ . Current maximum is $10,000$ , minimum is a multiple of $50$ .
Apportionment: Based on state population, with each state receiving at least one representative (e.g., California has $45$ ).
Requirements: Must live in the state, be a citizen, and at least $25$ years old.
Term: $2$ years; members must be reelected every two years.
Role: Intended to represent the interests of everyday people.
Leadership: Led by the Speaker of the House, elected by a majority vote of its members (typically from the majority party).

Members: $100$ members, with $2$ from each state.
Requirements: Must have lived in the state for $9$ years, be a citizen, and at least $30$ years old.
Term: $6$ years.
Historical Context: Until the early $1900s$ , senators were picked by state legislatures to give states power under the new Constitution; now elected by popular vote.
Power and Authority: The Senate generally holds more power and authority and its longer terms provide more experience.
Leadership: The Vice President of the United States serves as the President of the Senate and votes in case of a tie.
Rules: Each chamber creates its own rules. The Senate famously requires $60$ votes to bring certain matters to the floor (e.g., for general business), though this can be changed (e.g., changed to $51$ votes for judicial appointments).

A law must pass both the Senate and the House with a majority of the quorum (at least $50\%$ of members present).
Presidential Action: The President must sign a bill for it to become law.
Veto Override: If the President vetoes a bill, it returns to both houses. If both houses repass it with a two-thirds majority, it becomes law over the President's objection (e.g., War Powers Act vetoed by Nixon).
Line-Item Veto: Unlike state governors, the US President must sign or veto an entire bill, leading to the practice of