Disunion on the American Frontier

John L. Sullivan and Manifest Destiny

  • Date of Article: December 27, 1845

  • Main Idea:

    • Concept of Manifest Destiny as a divine fate for the United States to possess the whole continent.

    • This possession was viewed as essential for the development of liberty and self-governance in America.

  • Interpretation of Manifest Destiny:

    • Different perspectives between the North and South regarding what would manifest in the new territories.

    • Southerners' Vision:

      • Expansion of slavery was foreseen as an integral part of their future.

    • Northerners' Vision:

      • Intended to contain slavery, fearing it would plant anti-competitive institutions in the free market.

  • Religious Context:

    • Reference to God gifting the ability to expand; however, it was up to Americans to determine how they settled and governed these lands.

    • There is no divine guarantee of success in this experiment of liberty dependent on their actions.

  • Economic Perspectives:

    • Abraham Lincoln: Praised the Free Labor system as generating hope and progress through opportunity.

    • George Frederick Holmes:

    • Defended slavery against capitalism, seeing it as leading to "universal anarchy".

  • Tensions Over Slavery and Economy:

    • Historical context of economic systems leading to tensions about the direction of the U.S.

    • Capitalist free labor in the North versus slave labor in the South.

    • Founding generation's ignorance of this tension until the Missouri statehood controversy forced recognition of these sectional differences.

  • Missouri Compromise (1820):

    • Missouri was admitted as a slave state while Maine was admitted as a free state.

    • Congress prohibited slavery north of the 36°30' parallel.

    • Thomas Jefferson's Reaction:

    • Expressed prophetic concern about this issue leading to future conflict, being a "firebell in the night".

  • Wealth from Slavery:

    • By the end of the Civil War, four million slaves contributed to approximately $3 billion in capital for Southern wealth.

    • Elizabeth Altin's view:

    • Treated her slaveholding husband’s role akin to a missionary, believing in the moral responsibility towards slaves.

  • General Ulysses S. Grant's View:

    • Claimed that slavery was one of the worst causes for which a people ever fought, yet acknowledged the sincerity of many Southerners.

  • Views of John C. Calhoun:

    • Once termed slavery a moral evil but later supported the idea that slavery was a basis for free institutions.

  • Southern Resistance to Capitalism:

    • Southerners criticized the capitalist individualism that they believed drove class warfare and undermined their social structure.

  • Perceptions of Labor:

    • Described the enslaved as well-cared for compared to free laborers in capitalist societies. Further, they condemned capitalism as an evil influenced by greed.

  • Paternalism as Justification:

    • Paternalistic views rationalized slavery as a mutual obligation between slave and master, rather than a system of exploitation.

  • Resistance to Change:

    • Southerners' contempt for innovation, viewing economic progress as expansion of labor supply rather than technological advancement.

The American West and Economic Competition

  • Geographical Expansion:

    • Southern interests pushed to claim Western territories to expand slavery, while Northerners focused on labor and free-market economies.

  • Economic Conflict in the South:

    • Northern factories flourished while Southern agriculture relied on slave labor, manifesting in economic divergence between the regions.

  • Politicization and Imperialism:

    • War against Mexico reflected deeper issues surrounding slave expansion and national identity.

    • Southern expansionism aimed to solidify slavery's national foothold, inducing military conflicts with Native Americans for land.

  • Seminole Wars:

    • Conflict aimed at controlling Florida saw U.S. military assertiveness, further entrenching slavery as a national institution.

  • The Texas Revolution (1836):

    • American settlers defied Mexican laws, sparking conflict over inheritance of land and slavery laws, which led the U.S. to war with Mexico (1846).

    • Post-war, the U.S. gained large portions of territory, intensifying sectional tensions.

  • The Wilmot Proviso:

    • Attempt at legislatively excluding slavery from the newly acquired territories but met with harsh resistance in Congress.

    • Abraham Lincoln frequently supported this as part of his political advocacy against slavery expansion.

Compromise of 1850

  • Key Components:

    • California entered as a free state.

    • Enhanced protections for slaveholders under the Fugitive Slave Act.

    • Compounded issues while aiming for balance between Southern demands for slavery rights and Northern anti-slavery sentiment.

  • Fugitive Slave Act:

    • Stripped African-Americans of legal rights, reinforcing injustices and fueling Northern discontent.

  • Legislative Resistance:

    • Political fallout from compromises led to increased sectional animus with Northern politicians pivoting away from Southern interests.

Violence in Kansas and Dred Scott Decision

  • Bleeding Kansas:

    • Civil violence arose from conflicting interests over statehood regarding slavery, leading to brutal conflicts between pro- and anti-slavery settlers.

    • The infamous Potawatomi Massacre by John Brown highlighted the deep divides.

  • Dred Scott Case (1857):

    • Supreme Court decision claimed African-Americans could not be citizens, upholding slavery while permitting it across state lines.

The Road to Civil War

  • Symbiotic Relationship:

    • The interdependence between slavery and various forms of economic and political systems intensified crisis points leading to war.

  • Lincoln's Fumble on Emancipation:

    • Lincoln's views shifted under pressure for humane governance versus strict adherence to laws supporting slavery spread.

  • Final Agitation:

    • As tensions accumulated, sectional differences led directly to the division of the nation and subsequent Civil War outbreak in 1861.

Conclusion and Reflection

  • Contrasting Goals:

    • Northerners sought to challenge slavery's foothold while Southerners strained to maintain and propagate it within the breadth of American destiny.

  • Enduring Impact:

    • Manifest Destiny served as both a unifying narrative and a foundation for conflict, revealing the struggles around economic interest, moral rights, and national identity that defined mid-19th century America.