POLI 2500

MICROFINANCE is a financial service that provides small loans to individuals in developing countries who do not have access to traditional banking services, often focusing on women and low-income households. It aims to promote entrepreneurship and reduce poverty by helping people start or expand small businesses.

PEACE ENFORCEMENT refers to military interventions aimed at ensuring peace or enforcing peace agreements, often without the consent of all parties involved. It typically involves the use of force to compel parties to comply with a ceasefire or peace settlement, and can be more aggressive than traditional

peacekeeping

THE RESOURCE CURSE refers to the paradox where countries rich in natural resources, such as oil or minerals, tend to experience less economic growth, less democracy, and worse development outcomes due to factors like corruption, conflict. and mismanagement. It suggests that abundant resources can hinder long-term development rather than fostering it.

NAMING AND SHAMING is a diplomatic strategy used to publicly criticize a state or organization for violating international norms or laws, in an effort to force them to change their behavior. By exposing violations, it aims to pressure the targeted entity to conform to expected standards or laws.

THE FOUR FREEDOMS are principles articulated by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1941, which included: Freedom of Speech, Freedom of Worship, Freedom from Want, Freedom from Fear.These freedoms form the foundation for human rights and global peace, advocating for fundamental rights and security for all people.

COLLECTIVE SECURITY is a system in which states agree to act together to defend any member state that is attacked, based on the belief that aggression against one is an attack against all. It aims to prevent conflicts by deterring potential aggressors with the collective power of the international community.

BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS are weapons that use biological agents such as bacteria, viruses, or toxins to harm or kill humans, animals, or plants. These weapons can cause widespread disease, death, and disruption, and are prohibited under international law due to their devastating and indiscriminate effects.

ECONOMIC LIBERALISM is an economic theory that advocates for minimal government interference in markets, emphasizing free trade, open markets, and the protection of property rights. It suggests that individual and market-driven decision-making leads to the most efficient allocation of resources and promotes global prosperity.

THE TREATY OF WESTPHALIA refers to a series of peace treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War in Europe. It is considered the foundation of the modern international system, establishing the principles of state sovereignty and non-intervention, as well as recognizing the territorial integrity of states

LIBERAL FEMINISM is a branch of feminism that advocates for gender equality through legal reforms, emphasizing individual rights, equality before the law, and equal access to education, employment, and political participation. It focuses on achieving gender parity within existing social and political structures.

BOUNDED RATIONALITY is a decision-making theory developed by Herbert Simon, which suggests that individuals or organizations make decisions based on limited information and cognitive constraints, rather than seeking the optimal solution. It emphasizes that people choose "good enough" options instead of maximizing outcomes due to limitations in knowledge and processing ability.

FIXED EXCHANGE RATES refer to a system where a country's currency value is pegged to the value of another currency, such as the U.S. dollar, or to a basket of currencies. This system provides stability in

GUERRILLA WARFARE is a type of irregular warfare in which small groups use unconventional tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, and hit-and-run attacks, to fight a larger, more traditional military force. It is often employed by insurgents or resistance movements against a stronger

enemy.

MONTREAL PROTOCOL is an international treaty adopted in 1987 to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of substances that deplete it, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). It is considered one of the most successful environmental agreements in history.

THE MELIAN DIALOGUE is a famous passage from Thucydides History of the Peloponnesian War, where the Athenians argue for their imperial dominance over the neutral island of Melos, asserting that

*the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must." It highlights the harsh realities of power politics and the conflict between justice and pragmatism in international relations.

CHEMICAL WEAPONS are toxic chemicals used as weapons to cause harm, death, or injury through their chemical properties. These weapons can cause severe injuries to the respiratory system, skin, and internal organs, and are banned under international law due to their indiscriminate and devastating effects.

RELATIVE DEPRIVATION refers to the perception that one is worse off compared to others or relative to their own expectations, often leading to feelings of dissatisfaction and frustration. It is a key concept in social movements and conflict theory, as people who feel deprived relative to others are more likely to engage in collective action.

COUNTERINSURGENCY refers to military, political, and social efforts aimed at defeating insurgent movements and preventing their resurgence. It involves not only military tactics but also efforts to win the hearts and minds of the local population through humanitarian aid, governance, and development programs.

CONFIRMATION BIAS is the tendency for individuals to favor information that confirms their preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, while disregarding or minimizing information that contradicts them.

This bias can lead to flawed decision-making and the reinforcement of false beliefs.

PLANNING VS. STRATEGY refers to the distinction between two aspects of decision-making in organizations and international relations. Planning is the process of outlining specific steps to achieve defined goals, often focusing on logistics and procedures, while strategy is the broader, long-term approach to achieving overall objectives, considering the larger context and competitive environment.

REALISM is a theory in international relations that emphasizes the role of power and national interest in global politics, positing that states are primarily concerned with securing their own survival in an anarchic international system. Realists believe that conflict is inevitable because of the competition for power and resources, and that moral norms cannot be applied to international relations in the same way they are applied domestically.

NGOS (NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS) are non-profit organizations that operate independently from government influence and are focused on addressing social, environmental, humanitarian, or political issues. They often work globally or locally to provide services, advocate for change, and raise awareness on various issues.

OPEC (ORGANIZATION OF THE PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES) is a coalition of oil-producing countries that coordinates the production and pricing of oil in global markets. The organization aims to secure stable oil prices by regulating production levels and preventing market fluctuations.

ANARCHY in international relations refers to the absence of a central authority or governing body that enforces laws on states, leading to a decentralized and self-help system. States must rely on their own power and capabilities for security and survival in an international system without overarching control.

DUMPING refers to the practice of a country or company exporting a product at a price lower than its cost of production or lower than the price it charges in its domestic market, often to gain market share or undercut competitors. This is generally considered unfair trade and can lead to anti-dumping measures.

IMF (INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND) is an international financial institution that provides financial assistance and advice to member countries facing economic instability or balance of payments issues. It aims to stabilize global financial markets, promote economic growth, and reduce poverty.

UNESCO (UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that aims to promote peace and security through international cooperation in education, science, culture, and communication. It works to preserve cultural heritage, promote literacy, and foster scientific collaboration.

AUTARKY is an economic policy or condition where a country seeks to be self-sufficient, minimizing or eliminating reliance on imports by producing all of its goods domestically. This approach aims to protect national industries but often leads to inefficiencies and higher costs.

WTO (WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION) is an international organization that regulates international trade by providing a framework for negotiating and enforcing trade agreements, resolving trade disputes, and ensuring that trade flows smoothly, predictably, and freely.

LIMITED WAR refers to a conflict in which the parties involved do not use all of their available military resources and aim to achieve specific, limited objectives rather than total victory. It typically involves restrictions on the scope, methods, or targets of warfare to avoid escalation.

GENOCIDE refers to the deliberate and systematic attempt to destroy a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, typically through mass killing, forced displacement, and other actions that undermine the group's existence.

PRIMORDIALISM is a theory in the study of ethnic identity, which suggests that ethnic groups have a deep, inherent, and fixed identity based on historical, cultural, and biological ties. It argues that ethnic identity is natural and unchangeable, rooted in ancient traditions.

MFN principle (Most-Favored-Nation) is a trade policy that ensures a country grants another country the same trade benefits it offers to its most favored trading partner, ensuring non-discriminatory treatment in trade relations.

HUMAN SECURITY is a concept that broadens the traditional understanding of security by focusing on the protection of individuals rather than states. It includes economic, health, environmental, personal, community, and political security, aiming to protect people from threats that affect their well-being.

THOMAS HOBBES was an English philosopher known for his work on political theory, particularly in his book Leviathan, where he argued that in the state of nature, without a governing authority, life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." He advocated for a strong central authority (a sovereign) to maintain peace and prevent chaos.

MICROSECURITY refers to the protection of individuals from personal threats, such as health issues, economic instability, and social risks, within the broader context of human security. It emphasizes the security needs at the individual level rather than at the national or global level.

PROTECTIONISM is an economic policy aimed at shielding a country's domestic industries from foreign competition by implementing measures such as tariffs, import quotas, and subsidies. It seeks to reduce imports and encourage local production to protect jobs and national industries.

UNITARY ACTORS is an assumption in international relations that states are single, unified entities, making decisions as a whole without significant internal divisions affecting their foreign policy. This simplifies analysis by treating states as rational decision-makers that pursue their national interests collectively.

MORAL HAZARD refers to a situation where one party takes on more risk because they do not have to bear the full consequences of their actions, often due to protection from external factors (e.g., insurance or government bailouts). This can lead to reckless behavior or poor decision-making.

PROPORTIONALITY is a principle in international law and just war theory that asserts that the use of force in conflict must be proportional to the threat or harm being addressed. It ensures that military actions do not exceed what is necessary to achieve legitimate military objectives, minimizing harm to civilians and non-combatants.

MERCANTILISM is an economic theory that emphasizes the role of the state in managing the economy to increase national wealth, often through protectionist measures such as tariffs, export subsidies, and limiting imports. It views global trade as a zero-sum game where one nation's gain is another's loss.

MNCS (MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS) are large companies that operate in multiple countries, managing production or delivering services in more than one country. They often have a significant influence on global trade, economics, and politics.

REMITTANCES refer to the money or resources sent by migrants to their home country, typically to support family members. They play a significant role in the economy of developing countries, providing financial assistance and improving living standards.

BALANCING refers to the strategy used by states in international relations to counteract or limit the power of a dominant state or coalition. This can involve forming alliances, increasing military capabilities, or taking other measures to ensure security in an anarchic international system.

LIBERALISM is a theory in international relations that emphasizes the role of institutions, cooperation, and interdependence between states. It asserts that international relations can be governed by laws, norms, and organizations that promote peace, democracy, and economic cooperation, as opposed to being driven solely by power and competition.

UNIPOLARITY refers to an international system in which one state holds a dominant or preeminent position in terms of military, economic, and political power. In a unipolar world, this dominant state has significant influence over global affairs, often shaping international norms and policies.

JUS IN BELLO refers to the set of legal and ethical guidelines that govern the conduct of parties during armed conflict, focusing on the methods and means of warfare. It emphasizes principles such as proportionality, distinction between combatants and non-combatants, and avoiding unnecessary suffering.

PEACEKEEPING refers to the deployment of international forces or observers to help maintain peace and security in conflict areas, typically under the authority of the United Nations. Peacekeeping forces help to prevent the resumption of conflict by monitoring ceasefires, disarming combatants, and providing humanitarian aid.

CARTELS are organizations or groups of producers, often in the same industry, that coordinate their actions to control prices, limit competition, and maximize profits, often at the expense of consumers. Examples include OPEC, which controls oil production.

DETERRENCE is a strategy in international relations aimed at preventing an adversary from taking a desirable action, typically by threatening significant retaliation. It is often associated with nuclear sons and the idea that the threat of overwhelming force can prevent attacks.

CURRENCY CRISES occur when there is a sudden and sharp devaluation of a country's currency, often due to speculative attacks, loss of investor confidence, or unsustainable economic policies. These crises can lead to economic instability, inflation, and a loss of foreign reserves.

MULTIPOLARITY refers to an international system where multiple states or power centers hold significant influence, leading to a more balanced distribution of power. Unlike unipolarity or bipolarity, where one or two states dominate, multipolarity involves multiple states competing or cooperating in global affairs.

WORLD BANK is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of developing countries for development projects aimed at reducing poverty and promoting economic growth. It focuses on infrastructure, health, education, and environmental sustainability.

JUS AD BELLUM refers to the set of criteria that must be met for a war to be considered justly initiated. It includes principles such as legitimate authority, just cause, right intention, probability of success, proportionality, and last resort.

ASYLUM SEEKERS are individuals who flee their home country due to fear of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, social group, or political opinion and seek international protection in another country. Their status as refugees has not yet been determined, and they await the decision on their claim for asylum.

CENTRAL BANKS are national financial institutions responsible for managing a country's currency, money supply, and interest rates. They play a key role in monetary policy, aiming to stabilize the economy by controlling inflation and supporting economic growth.

BANDWAGONING is a strategy in international relations where weaker states align with stronger states to share in the benefits of their power, rather than balancing against them. It contrasts with the concept of "balancing," where states align against a stronger power to counter its influence.

CORNUCOPIANS are individuals who believe that technological advancements and human ingenuity will allow society to overcome resource shortages and environmental challenges, often advocating for the belief that the Earth's resources are plentiful and can be effectively managed.

ABSOLUTE GAINS refers to the idea that in international relations, the total benefits a state receives from cooperation are more important than how those benefits compare to other states. The focus is on mutual improvement and overall prosperity, rather than competitive advantage.

ETHNIC CLEANSING refers to the systematic forced removal, persecution, or killing of members of an ethnic or religious group with the aim of making a region ethnically homogeneous. It is often associated with atrocities such as genocide and can include acts of violence, forced migration, and destruction of cultural landmarks.

IRON TRIANGLES refers to the stable, mutually beneficial relationships between bureaucratic agencies, legislative committees, and interest groups. These relationships are often characterized by close cooperation and influence, shaping public policy and government decisions.

GEOENGINEERING refers to the deliberate modification of the Earth's environment to counteract the effects of climate change, such as techniques to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or manage solar radiation, It involves large-scale technological interventions aimed at altering natural systems to mitigate global warming.

THE RESOURCE CURSE refers to the paradox where countries rich in natural restartens minerals, tend to experience less economic growth, less democracy, and worse

hinder long-term development rather than fostering it.

due to factors like corruption, conflict, and mismanagement. It suggests that abundant retars

NAMING AND SHAMING is a diplomatic strategy used to publicly criticize a state or organization for violating international norms or laws, in an effort to force them to change their behavior. By expos violations, it aims to pressure the targeted entity to conform to expected standards of laws.

THE FOUR FREEDOMS are principles articulated by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 194 which include: Freedom of Speech, Freedom of Worship, Freedom from Want, Freedom from Fear These freedoms form the foundation for human rights and global peace, advocating for fundamental rights and security for all people.

THE TREATY OF WESTPHALIA refers to a series of peace treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War in Europe. It is considered the foundation of the modern international system, establishing the principles of state sovereignty and non- intervention, as well as recognizing the territorial integrity of states.

BOUNDED RATIONALITY is a decision-making theory developed by Herbert Simon, which suggests that individuals or organizations make decisions based on limited information and cognitive constraints rather than seeking the optimal solution. It emphasizes that people choose "good enough" options instead of maximizing outcomes due to limitations in knowledge and processing ability.

RELATIVE GAINS refers to the idea in international relations that states are concerned. their own welfare but also with how Whir ages congere so others. States may prion advantage over cooperation, especially if one state benefits more than another, loading

rather than collaboration,

THE UN CHARTER is the foundational treaty of the United Nations, establishing its purposes, and principles, including the promotion of international peace, security, and cooperation with member states. It defines the roles of the UN's main organs, such as the General Assembly Council, and International Court of Justice,

HARD CURRENCY refers to a currency that is widely accepted around the world for international and investment due to its stability, reliability, and value retention. Examples include the U.S. euro, and the Japanese yen.

PYRRHIC VICTORY refers to a win that comes at such a significant cost to the victor that tantamount to defeat, where the losses incurred outweigh the benefits gained. It originates Pyrrhus of Epirus, whose army suffered irreplaceable casualties in defeating the Romans ZERO-SUM GAME is a situation in game theory or international relations where one exactly balanced by another party's loss, meaning the total amount of resouross or value me In these scenarios, any benefit for one player comes at the expense of another.

CONSTRUCTIVISM is a theory in international relations that emphasizes the role of ideas and identities in shaping state behavior and the international system. It argues that the international socially constructed and that actors' interactions are influenced by shared norms, values, and r AUM SHINRIKYO is a Japanese doomsday cult responsible for the 1995 Tokyo subway which killed 13 people and injured over a thousand. The group, led by Shoko Asahara, talks about an apocalypse through acts of terrorism and biological warfare.

SATISFICING is a decision-making strategy in which individuals or groups choose the first that meets the minimum criteria, rather than seeking the optimal or best possible outcome. It is maximizing, where one aims to achieve the best result possible.

CORE VS. PERIPHERY is a concept from world-systems theory that describes the unequal relationship between the wealthy, developed nations (core) and the poorer, developing nations (periphery). The core nations exploit the resources and labor of the periphery, leading to imbalances in global economic power.

DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY is a legal principle that grants diplomats protection from certain laws and prosecution in the host country to ensure they can perform their diplomatic duties without interference. It is designed to protect diplomats from harassment and ensure smooth international relations.

NEO-MALTHUSIANS are individuals or groups who advocate for limiting population growth due to concerns that overpopulation will lead to resource depletion, environmental degradation, and social instability. They draw from Thomas Malthus' theories, which predicted that population growth would eventually outpace food production.

SECURITY DILEMMA refers to a situation in international relations where one state's efforts to increase its own security (e.g., through military buildup or alliances are perceived as a threat by other states, leading them to respond in kind. This can lead to an escalation of tensions and conflict, even if neither side intends to initiate war.

BACK TO THE FUTURE refers to a concept in international relations predicting that the next half-century will see the rise of multiple powers that will challenge the dominance of the United States, leading to a more multipolar world with greater global conflict. This idea suggests that the current period of U.S. unipolarity will be followed by increased competition among rising powers. This concept was discussed in:

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS is a record of all economic transactions between a country and the rest of the world over a specific period, including trade in goods and services, capital flows, and financial transfers. It includes the current account, capital account, and financial account.

THE END OF HISTORY is a political theory proposed by Francis Fukuyama, suggesting that liberal democracy has emerged as the final form of human government, following the end of ideological conflicts like the Cold War. It argues that there are no viable alternatives to democracy and capitalism in the modern world.

POSITIVE-SUM GAME refers to a situation where all parties involved in an interaction or transaction benefit, with the total gains being greater than the total losses. Unlike a zero-sum game, where one party's gain is offset by another's loss, a positive-sum game allows for mutually beneficial outcomes.

EXPORT-LED GROWTH is an economic strategy where a country focuses on developing and expanding its export sectors to drive overall economic growth. By increasing exports, a country can generate foreign exchange, create jobs, and stimulate other parts of the economy.

IMPORT SUBSTITUTION is an economic strategy aimed at reducing dependeney on foreign goods by encouraging domestic production of goods that were previously imported. This policy promotes the growth of local industries and protects them from foreign competition, often through tariffs or subsidies.

LEVELS OF ANALYSIS is a concept in international relations that refers to different perspectives from which global issues can be examined. Typically, these levels include the individual level (focusing on leaders and human decision-making), the state level (looking at domestic factors such as politics, economics, and society), and the systemic level (examining the international system and global structures).

DIFFERENCE FEMINISM A theory that highlights the differences between men and women, arguing that these differences should be acknowledged and embraced in international relations, particularly in how power and security are approached.

SECOND STRIKE CAPABILITY The ability of a state to respond with a devastating nuclear attack after being attacked first, ensuring a credible deterrence against nuclear aggression.

DIPLOMATIC RECOGNITION The formal acknowledgment by one state of another state's sovereignty and legitimacy, often required for establishing official diplomatic relations.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS An international organization founded after World War I, aimed at maintaining peace through collective security and diplomacy, but ultimately failed to prevent World War II.

HEGEMONIC STABILITY THEORY The theory that international stability is most likely when one state holds a preponderance of power, thus providing global public goods like security and economic order.

THE BRETTON WOODS SYSTEM The post-World War II international economic framework, which established institutions like the IMF and the World Bank to promote global monetary cooperation, trade, and financial stability.

THE “CLASH OF CIVILIZATIONS” A theory proposed by Samuel Huntington, suggesting that cultural and religious identities, rather than ideological or economic differences, will be the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold War world.

TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS A situation in which individuals, acting in their own self-interest, overuse or deplete a shared resource, leading to negative consequences for all (e.g., environmental degradation).

OFFENSE-DEFENCE THEORY A theory in international relations that argues the likelihood of war depends on whether offense or defense is more advantageous—if offense is dominant, wars are more likely; if defense is dominant, peace is more probable.

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (ICC) A permanent court established to prosecute individuals for crimes such as genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, with jurisdiction over crimes committed by individuals, not states.

POWER TRANSITION THEORY The theory that global conflict occurs when a challenger state rises in power to threaten the dominance of the reigning hegemon, leading to potential war.

SOVEREIGN WEALTH FUNDS (SWFs): State-owned investment funds or entities that manage a country's reserves, typically from surplus revenues (e.g., oil profits), for the purpose of generating financial returns.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, focusing on economic, environmental, and social sustainability.

CURRENT ACCOUNT BALANCE A component of a country's balance of payments, which records trade in goods and services, income from abroad, and unilateral transfers (e.g., foreign aid).

UN SECURITY COUNCIL A principal organ of the United Nations responsible for maintaining international peace and security, with 15 members, including five permanent members with veto power.

"RETREAT FROM DOOMSDAY" A concept that refers to the decreasing likelihood of global conflict or nuclear war in recent decades, despite earlier fears of imminent destruction.

CAPITAL ACCOUNT BALANCE A component of the balance of payments that records the flow of capital, including foreign investments and loans, into and out of a country.

THE “COMING ANARCHY" A concept introduced by Robert Kaplan, referring to the idea that global instability, characterized by environmental degradation, poverty, and conflict, is threatening world order.

GROUP MOBILIZATION THEORY A theory in international relations that explains how and why groups (e.g., political movements, insurgents) mobilize to challenge established authorities, often influenced by grievances, resources, and leadership.

THE DEMOCRATIC PEACE THEORY The theory that democracies are less likely to go to war with one another, due to shared political norms, economic ties, and the checks and balances within democratic governments.

THE DIVERSIONARY THEORY OF WAR A theory suggesting that leaders may initiate conflict abroad to distract the public from domestic problems or to rally support for the government.

FLOATING EXCHANGE RATE A system in which the value of a country's currency is determined by market forces (supply and demand), rather than being fixed or pegged to another currency.

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (FDI) Investment by a foreign entity (individual or government) in a country’s assets, such as businesses, real estate, or infrastructure, with the aim of establishing a long-term interest.

COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE The economic principle that countries should specialize in producing goods or services that they can produce most efficiently, and trade them with others, to maximize global welfare.

THE “DUEL-USE PROBLEM” The challenge that certain technologies or resources can be used for both civilian and military purposes, creating potential for misuse or proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.

THE SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW The primary sources of international law include treaties, customary international law, general principles of law, and judicial decisions, with international treaties often being the most binding.

INTERNATIONALLY DISPlACED PERSONS (IDPs): Individuals who are forced to flee their homes due to conflict, persecution, or natural disaster but remain within their own country's borders, as opposed to refugees who cross international borders.

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE (ICJ): The principal judicial body of the United Nations, which settles disputes between states according to international law and gives advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by the UN.

STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENTS Economic reforms and policy changes often imposed by international financial institutions (like the IMF and World Bank) on countries facing financial crises, aimed at stabilizing and restructuring their economies.

UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY: A key organ of the United Nations, composed of all 193 member states, where countries discuss and make decisions on international issues, though resolutions are non-binding.

RALLY ‘ROUND THE FLAG A phenomenon where national crises (such as war or terrorist attacks) lead to a temporary increase in public support for the government and political leaders.

THE “RISKY-SHIFT” PHENOMENON The tendency for individuals in groups to make riskier decisions than they would alone, often due to shared responsibility and peer influence.

Bipolarity: A type of international system in which two superpowers or hegemonic states dominate global affairs, as seen during the Cold War with the United States and the Soviet Union.

BARUCH PLAN A proposal made by U.S. diplomat Bernard Baruch in 1946 for international control of nuclear weapons, aiming to prevent their proliferation after World War II.

SOVEREIGNTY The principle that a state has supreme authority over its territory and domestic affairs, free from external interference.

PEPFAR (President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief): A U.S. government initiative established in 2003 to address the global HIV/AIDS epidemic, providing funding and support to affected countries.

MARXISM A socio-political and economic theory that critiques capitalism and argues that class struggle is the primary driver of social change, with the eventual goal of a classless, stateless society.

REFUGEES Individuals who are forced to flee their home country due to fear of persecution, conflict, or violence and seek protection in another country.

SANCTIONS Punitive measures, often economic or diplomatic, imposed by one or more countries on a state to influence its behavior, typically in response to violations of international law or human rights.

R2P (Responsibility to Protect): A global political commitment to prevent and respond to mass atrocity crimes (genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity) when a state is unable or unwilling to protect its own population.

GROUPTHINK: A psychological phenomenon in which members of a group prioritize consensus and harmony over critical thinking, often leading to poor decision-making and unchallenged assumptions.

SATYAGRAHA A philosophy and method of nonviolent resistance popularized by Mahatma Gandhi, which advocates for truth and nonviolent action to bring about social and political change.

HIPCs (Heavily Indebted Poor Countries): A group of countries with high levels of poverty and debt, which have been eligible for debt relief under the HIPC initiative led by the World Bank and IMF.