Brains and Intelligence - Lecture Notes

Introduction

• The lecture transitions from witchcraft and magical rationality to scientific rationalities, exploring the similarities between these different approaches to explaining phenomena. This transition highlights a shift in how societies explain and understand the world around them.

• The brain of Albert Einstein is presented as an example to introduce the idea that intelligence has a physical foundation. Studies on Einstein's brain aimed to find physical correlates to his extraordinary intellect.

  • Einstein's brain was removed after his death in 1955 and studied to find a physical basis for his intelligence. These studies included detailed analyses of its size, shape, and cellular composition.

• The lecture aims to discuss how Western societies have measured mental differences, similar to measuring skeletons of hominid ancestors. This measurement is part of a broader effort to quantify and understand human capabilities.

Overview of Topics

• Intelligence as a form of rationality: Exploring how intelligence is defined and measured within different systems of rationality.

• Origins of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Examining the historical development of IQ testing and its initial goals.

• The logic behind measuring intelligence: Investigating the assumptions and methodologies used in intelligence measurement.

• Developments in understanding intelligence beyond IQ: Discussing alternative theories and approaches that go beyond traditional IQ scores.

• A history of intelligence testing: Tracing the evolution of intelligence testing from its inception to modern applications.

• Ideas about artificial intelligence: Exploring the concepts and technologies related to creating intelligent machines.

Assessment 3: End of Unit Assessment

• The assessment opens on June 2 and closes on June 6. This limited window requires students to manage their time effectively.

• It consists of four sections, each taking 35 minutes (with accommodations for access plans). The structure ensures coverage of all key course content.

• Each section includes five multiple-choice quiz questions and two short answer questions (approximately 250 words each). The blend of question types assesses both factual knowledge and analytical skills.

• Short answer questions are worth more marks (40 marks each) compared to quiz questions (4 marks each). This weighting emphasizes the importance of comprehensive and well-articulated responses.

• Each section focuses on specific weeks of the course, e.g., Part A covers Week 1 and Week 2. Alignment with course weeks ensures targeted preparation.

• Preparation involves reviewing readings and lecture content. Effective preparation requires a thorough understanding of assigned materials.

• The assessment is open book and can be done at home. The open-book format encourages students to apply their knowledge rather than memorize facts.

Recap of Culture and Rationality

• Culture involves how we perceive, see, conceive, communicate, organize, and act, influencing how we make time and space. Cultural norms shape our understanding and interactions with the world.

• Witchcraft crises are moments of social flux where belief in unseen forces and heightened uncertainty prevail. These crises often occur during times of significant social change.

• Witchcraft or magic serves as a rationality suitable for crises, attributing misfortunes to evil intervention or external forces. This form of rationality provides an explanation for inexplicable events.

• In witchcraft belief systems, interpersonal forces, such as neighbors and family, are seen as influential in one's life. Social relationships play a crucial role in these belief systems.

• Modern Western rationality contrasts with witchcraft, emphasizing impersonal forces like market capitalism or environmental pollutants. This contrast highlights different approaches to understanding causality.

• Oracles are crucial in societies that believe in witchcraft, providing a basis for action. Oracles provide guidance and direction in uncertain situations.

• This rationality fits within a broader cultural understanding of the world. Cultural context is essential for understanding belief systems.

Brains and Intelligence: Evolutionary Perspective

• Evolutionary science in the 19th century focused on understanding how Homo sapiens evolved to become more intelligent. This focus was driven by an interest in human origins and capabilities.

• Craniology and phrenology attempted to understand intelligence by studying the size and shape of skulls. These fields were early attempts to link physical traits with mental abilities.

• Smaller brains in ancestors like chimpanzees and Australopithecus were associated with lower intelligence. Brain size was seen as a key indicator of cognitive capacity.

• Phrenologists looked for atavistic traits in contemporary people who seemed less intelligent. These traits were thought to be evolutionary throwbacks.

• Scientists correlated brain size and shape with evolutionary milestones like control of fire and domestication of plants. These milestones were seen as evidence of increasing intelligence.

Argument by Analogy

• The argument that bigger brains correlate to higher intelligence is an argument by analogy. This argument draws parallels between different species and time periods.

• The argument is as follows:

  • If hominids have intelligence, then Homo sapiens have intelligence.

  • If hominids have brains, then brains can attain intelligence.

  • If hominid brains have been growing over time (encephalization), then the size of the brain is associated with intelligence.

• Counterpoint: Homo sapiens' brains were bigger 30,000 years ago, but it's unlikely they were less intelligent then. This challenges the simple correlation between brain size and intelligence.

History of IQ

• Francis Galton, a eugenicist, tried to correlate mental performance to physical traits in the late 19th century. Galton's work was motivated by eugenic ideals and a desire to improve human traits.

• Psychologists like Binet and Charles Spearman developed standardized tests to measure intelligence on a linear scale. These tests aimed to provide an objective measure of intellectual ability.

• Binet focused on verbal expression in children to rank them on a common scale. Binet's tests were designed to identify children who needed additional educational support.

• Psychologists aimed to use tests to measure aptitude if physical dimensions couldn't measure mental performance. This represented a shift towards more direct measures of cognitive abilities.

Theories of Intelligence

• Generalized intelligence: A common, measurable trait across individuals. This theory posits a single underlying factor that influences all cognitive abilities.

• Fluid intelligence: Problem-solving abilities. Fluid intelligence refers to the capacity to reason and solve novel problems, independent of prior knowledge.

• Crystallized intelligence: Stored knowledge and facts. Crystallized intelligence involves the accumulation of knowledge and skills over time.

Progressive Political Understanding

• Early psychologists believed that socioeconomic status should be based on merit (intelligence and motivation). This belief reflected a desire for a more equitable society based on individual capabilities.

• This idea suggested individuals' fates should be determined by aptitude rather than birth. Meritocracy was seen as a way to promote social mobility and opportunity.

Dynamic Nominalism

• IQ tests were seen as practical tools for:

  • Helping people place themselves in life.

  • Providing access to educational opportunities for those with high intelligence.

  • Aiding occupational placement based on problem-solving abilities.

• IQ tests were used to justify dividing access to privilege based on a standardized measure. This raised concerns about fairness and equity.

• Secondary elaboration occurred as tests were refined due to cultural and contextual issues. Test refinement aimed to address biases and improve accuracy.

Dynamic Nominalism and Reification

• Dynamic nominalism involves naming a range of aptitudes (maths, logical reasoning, problem-solving) as intelligence. This process shapes our understanding of what intelligence is.

• Reification turns these phenomena into a concrete thing called "intelligence." Reification can lead to an oversimplified view of complex human abilities.

• Being kind or artistic are not considered intelligence in this context. This highlights the narrow definition of intelligence used in IQ testing.

• Pain is tested differently, using a subjective scale (1-10) that acknowledges individual experience (qualia). Subjective scales recognize the individual nature of certain experiences.

• Conceptualizations like witchcraft or intelligence need careful examination. Critical analysis is essential for understanding the assumptions and implications of these concepts.

Contemporary IQ Tests

• Examples of IQ test questions:

  • Mathematical/logical reasoning problems.

  • General knowledge questions (e.g., "Does Mars have an atmosphere?").

• These tests highlight the difficulty of creating universal, culturally independent measures of intelligence. Cultural and contextual factors can significantly influence test results.

Logic Behind IQ Testing

• The assumption is that intelligence is a thing, is the same across cultures, and can be compared through standardized tests. This assumption is fundamental to the validity of IQ testing.

• This makes sense only if intelligence is under genetic control. Genetic control would imply that intelligence is largely predetermined.

• If environmental factors are most important, standardized IQ tests are less meaningful. Environmental influences challenge the notion of a fixed, measurable intelligence.

• A problem for IQ testers is demonstrating that what they're testing is innate, excluding environmental influences. Separating innate abilities from environmental effects is a significant challenge.

Discriminatory Nature of IQ Tests

• Testing intelligence through standardized tests inevitably discriminates against those lacking access to tested knowledge and skills. This raises concerns about fairness and equity.

• IQ tests inherently value speed in decision-making, which may not always be a good thing. Speed may not always reflect true intelligence or competence.

• They favor right and wrong answers over entertaining ambiguity. This preference can limit the assessment of creativity and critical thinking.

• They prioritize individual decision-making over seeking advice from others. Collaboration and consultation are often valuable aspects of problem-solving.

Comparison: Mangu Witchcraft vs. IQ Tests

• Similarities:

  • Both consider the most important actor (witchcraft/intelligence) as an inherited, inorganic phenomenon.

  • Both locate this actor in a specific part of the body (intestines/brain).

  • It's largely outside one's control.

  • It can be proven by cutting someone open or by testing.

  • It can grow over time.

  • It can cause events and explain their occurrence.

• Rationalities are similar in the sense that lives are governed by something physical and beyond our ability to change, yet with strong explanatory power.

Issues with IQ Testing

• The paradigm of testable intelligence survives despite issues. The persistence of IQ testing reflects its perceived utility and widespread acceptance.

• The Flynn effect: IQ scores are inflating over time, suggesting tests may not measure innate intelligence. The Flynn effect challenges the notion of a stable, genetically determined intelligence.

• The Wilson effect: IQ test performance peaks around age 20, with some declining and others improving, indicating the test isn't a great measure of general intelligence. The Wilson effect suggests that IQ scores may not accurately reflect lifelong intellectual capacity.

• Gould's critiques: Stephen Jay Gould raised significant concerns about the validity and biases of IQ testing.

Further Reification

• Popular culture (movies, novels, TV shows) perpetuates the idea of IQ as a measure of intelligence. Popular culture reinforces the idea of IQ as a definitive measure of intelligence.

• Organizations like MENSA reinforce the notion that high IQ individuals are a distinct group. MENSA promotes the idea that high IQ is a marker of exceptional intellectual ability.

• Testers refocused on abstraction, pattern making, and emotional perception as tests were confounded by evidence. This refocus aimed to address criticisms and improve the validity of IQ tests.

• IQ tests became bigger and longer to test different things. The expansion of IQ tests reflects an effort to capture a broader range of cognitive abilities.

Other Personality Tests

• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):

  • Classifies individuals into different personality types.

• Enneagram:

  • Segments individuals into one of nine types based on abilities.

• DISC:

  • Segments based on dominance, influence, steadiness, and conscientiousness.

• Husserl's concept of technicization describes turning phenomena into something that can be measured in finer detail; it can be expanded over time as our understanding becomes more complex. Technicization reflects the increasing precision and complexity of measurement.

• According to Ian Hacking, it may be suspected that rather than discovering, we may be inventing an idea of what intelligence really is. This suggests that our understanding of intelligence is a social construct.

Artificial Intelligence

• Psychologists contemplated how cognition could be measured consistently. This contemplation reflects a broader effort to understand and quantify human cognition.

• Computer scientists in the 1950s pondered how to incorporate intelligence into technical systems like computers. This marked the beginning of artificial intelligence research.

• Machine learning:

  • Systems view human intelligence as a system, comparable to computers or ecologies.

  • Cybernetics:

  • Mapping human cognition as information input, processing through memory, decision-making, and action.

• AI, such as large language models, is a mapping of human intelligence into technical systems. AI seeks to replicate human intelligence in machines.

• ChatGPT (stochastic parrot):

  • Represents how we perceive human cognition, drawing on memory and producing outputs akin to prior inputs.

• AI involves mapping what we perceive intelligence to be, creating a logical system that can be implemented effectively. AI development relies on our understanding of human intelligence.