Spain and her New World

On this second voyage, Columbus sailed further south, sighting a mountainous island on November 3 which he named 'Dominica'. He then turned north, encountering the 'Caribs' (who called themselves the 'Kalinago') in Guadeloupe. Spanish sailors reportedly found what they took to be human limbs being cooked and dried, leading to the name 'cannibal' from the Spanish name 'Caribales'. However, the text notes there is no evidence that the Kalinago were, in fact, cannibals.

Upon reaching La Navidad on Hispaniola, Columbus was shocked to find only the charred remains of the fort and houses, and four dead Spaniards. The trouble seemed to be over the Spaniards' demands for food, women, and gold, with greed and cruelty leading to the failure of the first settlement. Columbus then established a new colony called 'Isabella', putting his brother Diego in charge, but it also failed. The settlers found no gold, were plagued by insects, and the Indians revolted. European diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza easily killed the Amerindians, whose bodies had no resistance to the new germs. Supplying the Spaniards with food was also difficult. Eventually, Columbus's other brother, Bartholomew, was made governor, and a new, modern city was established at Santo Domingo.

Columbus Continues to Explore

Though a brilliant sailor, Columbus proved to be a hopeless governor and organiser of people. He was often disappointed by his discoveries and resorted to falsifying maps and making his crew sign a document claiming they had landed on the mainland coast when he touched Cuba. He visited Jamaica in 1494 but still didn't find the dreamt-of cities of gold.

Columbus made four voyages in total. On his third voyage in 1498, he landed at Trinidad and then finally touched the mainland coast of Venezuela. He realized it was a "great continent" but still believed until his death that this "Other World" lay somewhere off south-east Asia.

Back on Hispaniola, Spanish colonists were discontented and rebellious because they hadn't found the expected riches and disliked the local food (cassava bread, sweet potatoes, and corn). Reports of the Columbus brothers being cruel and unjust governors reached Spain. The King and Queen sent Francisco de Bobadilla to investigate.

Bobadilla was shocked to find that Christopher Columbus had recently executed seven Spanish rebels and was planning to hang five more. Bobadilla immediately put all three Columbus brothers (Christopher, Diego, and Bartholomew) in chains and sent them back to Spain in disgrace in 1500.

After pleading his case, Columbus had his rights and privileges restored, but it was two years before his fourth and last voyage. He arrived off the Bay Islands of Honduras. If he had sailed north, he might have reached the Aztecs' kingdom and its cities of gold. However, he sailed south past Panama, giving up hope of finding the western passage. Ill and with his ships damaged, he returned to Spain a defeated man. Christopher Columbus died on May 20, 1506, largely unnoticed by the Spanish

THE NEW WORLD GROWS & THE TREATY OF TORDESILLAS

Europeans did not immediately realize a completely new world had been found, as Columbus insisted he had reached Asia. Sailors eventually understood it was a vast, unknown landmass between Europe and Asia, which they called 'the New World' because it was new to them. The continent stretched from the North Pole almost to the South Pole.

The Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci explored the mainland coast of Brazil and wrote popular, lively letters about his travels. Map-makers later named the entire continent 'America' after him, despite Columbus having been there first.

John and Sebastian Cabot, sailing for Henry VII of England, explored the northern part of the continent in 1497-1498, reaching the snow-covered coast they called 'Newfoundland' and landing at Nova Scotia. Meanwhile, the Portuguese explored their eastern route, with Vasco da Gama reaching the coast of Malabar in India and returning safely with spices in 1498.

To settle disputes, Spain and Portugal asked Pope Alexander VI to divide the newly discovered lands. The Pope drew an imaginary line, confirmed by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which ran along what is now 50 degrees west longitude.

  • West of the line: Belonged to Spain.

  • East of the line: Belonged to Portugal (including modern Brazil, Africa, and islands in the East Indies).

Some European countries, especially those that broke away from the Roman Catholic Church, did not accept the Pope's authority and later seized lands by force.

BALBOA, MAGELLAN AND SPANISH COLONIES

In 1513, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, the governor of the Darien colony, proved another great ocean lay west of America. With the help of local Indians, he crossed the isthmus of Panama and saw the limitless ocean from a mountain top. He claimed it for Spain and called it the Southern Sea. However, he could not agree with the new governor, Pedrarias, and was eventually accused of treason, sentenced, and beheaded.

The Portuguese navigator Magellan later named the ocean 'The Pacific' (from the Latin 'pax' meaning 'peaceful'). His ships were the first to travel all the way around the world, a voyage that took three years, though Magellan himself died during the journey.

Setting up colonies was costly, requiring transport, clearing land, building, and governance. Spain expected a quick return on their investment. The early Spanish colonists in the West Indies, many of them young gentlemen from rich families, expected immediate wealth and had no intention of working in the hot sun. The resulting discontent and rebellion led to the need for organized rule.

GOVERNANCE AND ECONOMY OF THE SPANISH COLONIES

Frey Nicolas de Ovando was sent to Santo Domingo with orders to maintain law and order, serving as the Viceroy (supreme head of the island government). Below him was the local council, the Cabildo, made up of chosen noblemen (hidalgos) called regidores, who elected magistrates (alcaldas ordinaros). The appeal court was the audiencia. This system was replicated in other Spanish colonies. The Council of the Indies was formed in Spain in 1511 and had supreme control over all Spanish dominions in America and the West Indies.

In farming, European crops like grape vines, olives, wheat, oats, and barley mostly failed in the tropical climate. Those that thrived were restricted because Spain did not want to import anything that could be grown by her own farmers. The colonists developed American crops such as tobacco, cassava, potatoes, and corn. They also grew crops brought from the Canary Islands, including bananas, oranges, lemons, and sugar cane (which would become very important). Dyes (indigo, fustic, logwood, and cochineal) were also valuable products.

The raising of cattle was one of the most important occupations. Hides were the most valuable part of the animals, and often the bodies were left to rot after skinning. Pigs were also raised for salted pork. Cattle ranchers and gold mine owners became the wealthiest men. The largest gold mines were in Cuba. Indians were captured and driven to work in the mines, with men digging and women washing the soil for gold grains. The colonists' thirst for gold was so extreme that Indians believed the Spanish god was gold itself. The Indian tribes of the Greater Antilles suffered untold hardships, and so many thousands died that Spain began looking for a new source of labor.

OTHER ISLAND COLONIES AND CONQUERORS

More settlers kept arriving from Spain, despite bad reports. During Ovando's rule, Santo Domingo became a large town. Diego Colón, the Admiral's son, took over as governor from 1509 to 1523.

New colonies were established:

  • Jamaica had a settlement begun in 1509.

  • Cuba was confirmed as an island in 1508 and a colony was founded there by Diego Velázquez in 1511. Cuba became a major site for gold and ranching/planting, leading many to leave Hispaniola for it.

  • Puerto Rico was settled by Juan Ponce de León in 1512, but the Spaniards were challenged by the brave Kalinago from the southern islands, making control difficult for many years.

Ponce de León also searched for the mythical 'fountain of youth' in the Bahamas, but failed, instead exploring Florida in 1514. The Spanish colonists preferred the Greater Antilles (large islands) because they were occupied by less hostile people than the Kalinago, and the large, flat areas were easier to colonize. The violent reputation of the Kalinago caused the smaller southern islands to be left alone. To get rid of the Kalinago, an order was issued granting Spaniards the right to wage war upon, enslave, and sell free of tax any Kalinago living in the islands from Dominica to Trinidad.

The Spanish island colonies served as gateways to the mainland. Expeditions of soldiers, horses, and guns—led by conquerors called conquistadores—set out from Cuba and Hispaniola toward Central America, seeking gold and quick fortune.

THE HISTORY TODAY

The names Columbus gave the islands are still in use today (Antiguans, Kittitians, etc., because of 1493). Portugal later claimed the rest of the territory now known as Brazil, which is a growing economic giant. The route of the modern Panama Canal follows the path taken by Balboa when he first crossed the isthmus. The old city of Santo Domingo remains the capital of the Dominican Republic, and its historic area, where Ovando and Diego Columbus once walked, is now a UNESCO World Heritage site attracting many tourists.