Tema 2

1. THEME

• General theories about second language acquisition and learning include:

  • The concept of interlanguage.

  • The treatment of error.

2. OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION

2. THEORIES ON FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

   • 2.1. Behaviourism

   • 2.2. Innatism

   • 2.3. Cognitivism

3. THEORIES ON SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

   • 3.1. Behaviourism

   • 3.2. Cognitivism

   • 3.3. Krashen’s Monitor Model

     • 3.3.1. Acquisition vs. learning hypothesis

     • 3.3.2. The Monitor hypothesis

     • 3.3.3. The Natural Order hypothesis

     • 3.3.4. The Input hypothesis

     • 3.3.5. The Affective-filter hypothesis

   • 3.4. Constructivism

4. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN L1 ACQUISITION AND L2 LEARNING

5. THE CONCEPT OF INTERLANGUAGE

6. ERROR ANALYSIS AND ITS TREATMENT

   • 6.1. Types of errors

   • 6.2. Error treatment

7. CONCLUSION

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. INTRODUCTION

• Language learning remains a complex process, with no definitive answer on how it occurs. Research in this domain has led to influential theories impacting teaching methodologies.

• Four primary theories are central: Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Krashen’s Monitor Model, and Constructivism.

• The impact of these theories points toward practical applications in teaching, urging educators to create principled bases for their methodologies while addressing common errors.

2. THEORIES ON FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

• Linguists utilize observational and experimental methods to study language acquisition, with several theories emerging:

2.1. Behaviourism

• Proposed by B.F. Skinner in "Verbal Behaviour", viewing language as learned through imitation and reinforcement. It emphasizes a stimulus-response-reinforcement model in learning to speak, highlighting the role of adult reinforcement in shaping speech.

• Despite its influence, behaviourism fails to account for complexities such as grammar acquisition.

2.2. Innatism

• Introduced by Noam Chomsky, this theory posits an innate language acquisition device (LAD), suggesting children are born with a natural ability for language development. It distinguishes between language competence (knowledge) and performance (usage).

2.3. Cognitivism

• Cognitivism links language acquisition to intellectual development, asserting that cognitive abilities must be exercised for structures like comparison to develop. Piaget’s model on cognitive development plays a significant role here.

3. THEORIES ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING

3.1. Behaviourism

• Behaviourism is reiterated in second language acquisition (SLA), mirroring first language learning processes through stimulus-response associations. Language teachers historically adopted these principles in the audio-lingual method, emphasizing drills and reinforcements.

• It posits that learners replicate first language habits that may interfere with second language development, leading to the contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH).

3.2. Cognitivism

• Cognitivism characterizes L2 learning as a skill acquisition process where learners must automate sub-skills leading to fluent performance. This framework appreciates both linguistic and cognitive aspects of language learning, separating habit formation from the complexity of language.

3.3. Krashen’s Monitor Model

• Developed by Stephen Krashen, this influential model comprises five hypotheses:

  • 3.3.1. Acquisition vs. Learning Hypothesis: Asserts that acquisition is the subconscious process of developing language proficiency, while learning refers to explicit knowledge gained through instruction. Only acquisition can lead to fluency, not simply learned rules.

  • 3.3.2. The Monitor Hypothesis: Suggests a 'monitor' function that allows learners to use learnt knowledge to edit their spoken language, emphasizing conditions like having enough time and focusing on forms.

  • 3.3.3. The Natural Order Hypothesis: Proposes a predictable order in which language rules are learned, independent of instruction.

  • 3.3.4. The Input Hypothesis: Advocates exposing learners to comprehensible input slightly above their existing competence level to promote acquisition.

  • 3.3.5. The Affective-filter Hypothesis: Discusses how emotional states affect learning capacity, with a low affective filter aiding language acquisition.

3.4. Constructivism

• This approach combines elements of cognitivism and Krashen’s model, promoting both acquisition and learning while prioritizing comprehensibility and relevance of input to the learner’s context. It regards errors as integral to the learning process, emphasizing teaching learning strategies.

4. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN L1 ACQUISITION AND L2 LEARNING

4.1. Similarities

• Both processes draw on cognitive abilities, requiring exposure to comprehensible input and exhibiting a natural order in language acquisition. Imitation is essential in both contexts.

4.2. Differences

• L2 learners differ from children learning L1 due to pre-existing language knowledge which can interfere. The classroom as an artificial setting limits exposure and practice opportunities compared to naturalistic L1 environments.

4.3. Implications for Foreign Language Teaching

• Foreign language educators must motivate students, acknowledging that L2 learning encompasses stages of repetition and cannot rely solely on imitation. A supportive environment that respects learner pace is crucial, alongside viewing errors as positive learning signs.

5. THE CONCEPT OF INTERLANGUAGE

• The term "interlanguage," coined by Selinker, refers to the language system that L2 learners develop, which lies between their L1 and the target language. It acknowledges elements of both but forms a unique linguistic capacity.

6. ERROR ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT

• Errors reflect the acquisition process and can guide instructive approaches. Distinguishing between errors (lack of knowledge) and mistakes (performance slips) helps educators tailor responses:

6.1. Types of Errors

• Interlingual Errors: Resulting from L1 interference.

• Intralingual Errors: Resulting from partial learning of the target language, including overgeneralization and simplification.

6.2. Error Treatment

• Teachers should identify and correct persistent errors without neglecting the need for fluency practice. Involving students in error correction and embracing a structured feedback approach enhances learning.

7. CONCLUSION

• Language teaching is multifaceted, necessitating an understanding of each learner's journey and the errors they encounter to provide effective support.

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

• References include key texts by Harmer, Krashen, and Richards that substantiate this unit.

THEME

General theories about second language acquisition and learning include the concept of interlanguage and the treatment of error.

INTRODUCTION

Language learning remains a complex process, with no definitive answer on how it occurs. Research in this domain has led to influential theories impacting teaching methodologies. Four primary theories are central: Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Krashen’s Monitor Model, and Constructivism. The impact of these theories points toward practical applications in teaching, urging educators to create principled bases for their methodologies while addressing common errors.

THEORIES ON FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Linguists utilize observational and experimental methods to study language acquisition, with several theories emerging.

2.1. Behaviourism

Proposed by B.F. Skinner in "Verbal Behaviour," this theory views language as learned through imitation and reinforcement. It emphasizes a stimulus-response-reinforcement model in learning to speak, highlighting the role of adult reinforcement in shaping speech. Despite its influence, behaviourism fails to account for complexities such as grammar acquisition.

2.2. Innatism

Introduced by Noam Chomsky, this theory posits an innate language acquisition device (LAD), suggesting that children are born with a natural ability for language development. It distinguishes between language competence (knowledge) and performance (usage).

2.3. Cognitivism

Cognitivism links language acquisition to intellectual development, asserting that cognitive abilities must be exercised for structures like comparison to develop. Piaget’s model on cognitive development plays a significant role here.

THEORIES ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING

3.1. Behaviourism

Behaviourism is reiterated in second language acquisition (SLA), mirroring first language learning processes through stimulus-response associations. Language teachers historically adopted these principles in the audio-lingual method, emphasizing drills and reinforcements. It posits that learners replicate first language habits that may interfere with second language development, leading to the contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH).

3.2. Cognitivism

Cognitivism characterizes L2 learning as a skill acquisition process where learners must automate sub-skills leading to fluent performance. This framework appreciates both linguistic and cognitive aspects of language learning, separating habit formation from the complexity of language.

3.3. Krashen’s Monitor Model

Developed by Stephen Krashen, this influential model comprises five hypotheses:

3.3.1. Acquisition vs. Learning Hypothesis

This hypothesis asserts that acquisition is the subconscious process of developing language proficiency, while learning refers to explicit knowledge gained through instruction. Only acquisition can lead to fluency, not simply learned rules.

3.3.2. The Monitor Hypothesis

It suggests a 'monitor' function that allows learners to use learnt knowledge to edit their spoken language, emphasizing conditions like having enough time and focusing on forms.

3.3.3. The Natural Order Hypothesis

This hypothesis proposes a predictable order in which language rules are learned, independent of instruction.

3.3.4. The Input Hypothesis

This hypothesis advocates exposing learners to comprehensible input slightly above their existing competence level to promote acquisition.

3.3.5. The Affective-filter Hypothesis

This discussion highlights how emotional states affect learning capacity, with a low affective filter aiding language acquisition.

3.4. Constructivism

This approach combines elements of cognitivism and Krashen’s model, promoting both acquisition and learning while prioritizing comprehensibility and relevance of input to the learner’s context. It regards errors as integral to the learning process, emphasizing teaching learning strategies.

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN L1 ACQUISITION AND L2 LEARNING

4.1. Similarities

Both processes draw on cognitive abilities, requiring exposure to comprehensible input and exhibiting a natural order in language acquisition. Imitation is essential in both contexts.

4.2. Differences

L2 learners differ from children learning L1 due to pre-existing language knowledge which can interfere. The classroom as an artificial setting limits exposure and practice opportunities compared to naturalistic L1 environments.

4.3. Implications for Foreign Language Teaching

Foreign language educators must motivate students, acknowledging that L2 learning encompasses stages of repetition and cannot rely solely on imitation. A supportive environment that respects learner pace is crucial, alongside viewing errors as positive learning signs.

THE CONCEPT OF INTERLANGUAGE

The term "interlanguage," coined by Selinker, refers to the language system that L2 learners develop, which lies between their L1 and the target language. It acknowledges elements of both but forms a unique linguistic capacity.

ERROR ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT

Errors reflect the acquisition process and can guide instructive approaches. Distinguishing between errors (lack of knowledge) and mistakes (performance slips) helps educators tailor responses.

6.1. Types of Errors

Interlingual Errors: Resulting from L1 interference.Intralingual Errors: Resulting from partial learning of the target language, including overgeneralization and simplification.

6.2. Error Treatment

Teachers should identify and correct persistent errors without neglecting the need for fluency practice. Involving students in error correction and embracing a structured feedback approach enhances learning.

CONCLUSION

Language teaching is multifaceted, necessitating an understanding of each learner's journey and the errors they encounter to provide effective support.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

References include key texts by Harmer, Krashen, and Richards that substantiate this unit.