Ch 7 pysch

The Family as a System

  • Families in the Animal Kingdom

    • Families are relatively rare; mostly observed in humans and a few other species.

    • Humans are unique due to the prolonged childhood development phase, during which children cannot care for themselves.

    • Family structures evolved primarily to protect and nurture young children during their development. (Bjorklund, Yunger, & Pellegrini, 2002)

  • Functions of Modern Families

    • Beyond child-rearing, families function as economic units and sources of emotional support.

  • Contextual Perspective on Families

    • Theoretical perspective wherein families are seen as systems of interacting elements (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Schermerhorn & Cummings, 2008).

    • Parents and children influence one another’s behavior and attitudes.

    • Direct influence: e.g., parents encouraging children to study.

    • Indirect influence: e.g., a child's resistance leading to a parent using force rather than reasoning (Ritchie, 1999).

    • Family dynamics affected by external systems (extended family, friends, institutions like schools).

    • Neighborhood support can simplify child-rearing.

    • Contrarily, friction from relatives can complicate family dynamics.

    • Work schedules or lack of beneficial programs can indirectly impact family functioning.

  • Influences Within Family Systems

    • Parents influence children both directly and indirectly.

    • Examples of indirect influence:

    • A demanding husband can hinder the wife's ability to help children with homework.

    • Constant sibling arguments can distract parents from promoting their children's development.

  • Broader Social Systems

    • Families are embedded within larger social contexts, which influence their dynamics.

Parenting Dimensions and Styles

  • General Dimensions of Parenting

    • Parenting is characterized by stable behaviors representing two main dimensions:

    1. Warmth and Responsiveness (Holden & Miller, 1999)

      • High warmth: affectionate, involved, responsive to emotional needs.

      • Low warmth: uninvolved, hostile, prioritized own interests over children’s.

    2. Control (Grusec, 2011)

      • Psychological control: manipulating emotional states (e.g., guilt).

      • Behavioral control: setting rules and limits for behavior.

  • Impact of Parenting Styles

    • Optimal parenting: Minimal psychological control with moderate behavioral control.

    • Effective parenting promotes reasonable expectations and monitoring of child’s activities (Racz & McMahon, 2011).

  • Four Parenting Styles (Baumrind, 1975, 1991)

    • Authoritarian Parenting

    • High control, low warmth. Expect rules to be followed without discussion.

    • Minimal explanation and responsiveness to child’s needs.

    • Authoritative Parenting

    • Moderate control, high warmth. Encourages discussion around rules.

    • Permissive Parenting

    • High warmth, low control. Rarely disciplines or sets boundaries.

    • Uninvolved Parenting

    • Low warmth and control. Minimal engagement with children.

  • Effects of Parenting Styles on Children

    • Authoritative style leads to better academic performance, social skills, and lower rates of substance abuse (Amato & Fowler, 2002; Aunola, Stattin, & Nurmi, 2000).

    • Authoritarian children may suffer from low self-esteem and higher aggression (Braza et al., 2015).

    • Permissive children often lack self-control and are impulsive (Aunola et al., 2000).

    • Uninvolved children frequently have academic challenges and aggressive behaviors (Driscoll, Russell, & Crockett, 2008).

Cultural and Social Influences on Parenting Styles

  • Cultural Variation

    • Aiming to help children become contributing members of society is universal (Lansford et al., 2016).

    • Parenting practices vary globally according to cultural values.

    • In the U.S., emphasis is on individuality and self-reliance, supporting warm parenting styles (Goodnow, 1992).

    • In collectivist cultures (e.g., Chinese), emotional restraint and obedience are prioritized, which can lead to authoritarian practices (Lin & Fu, 1990; Zhou et al., 2008).

    • Latino cultures emphasize strong family ties and protective parenting (Halgunseth, Ispa, & Rudy, 2006).

  • Socioeconomic Status (SES) Influence

    • Variations in parenting styles also exist within cultures based on SES.

    • Typically, parents in lower SES backgrounds exhibit more authoritarian traits, often due to stress and limited resources (Pace et al., 2017).

    • Education correlates with parenting approach; higher education often leads to more authoritative practices (Skinner, 1985).

    • Lower financial resources contribute to increased stress that hampers effective parenting (Simons et al., 2016).

Genetic Influences on Parenting

  • Evolution of Family Systems

    • Parenting behaviors may be genetically influenced with nurturing behaviors being more likely to be passed on as they lead to child survival.

    • Twin studies suggest genetic predispositions influence parental warmth (McAdams et al., 2017).

  • Environmental Influences

    • Other factors affecting parenting include the quality of marital relationships and the characteristics of the child (Klahr & Burt, 2014).

Specific Parental Behaviors Influencing Child Development

  • Direct Instruction and Coaching

    • Effective parenting involves instructing children clearly about expected behaviors and the rationale behind them.

    • Parents can also coach children through social and emotional situations (e.g., recognizing emotions in others).

  • Modeling

    • Children learn significant behaviors through observing parents, resulting in imitative and counter-imitative behaviors.

    • Intergenerational continuity of parenting is influenced; behaviors learned from observing parental actions often carry into offspring parenting styles (Bailey et al., 2009).

  • Feedback Mechanisms

    • Reinforcement and Punishment are two forms of feedback.

    • Reinforcement: behaviors are encouraged through rewards (praise, treats).

    • Punishment: discouraging undesirable behaviors through consequences (loss of privileges, time-out).

  • Negative Reinforcement Trap

    • A common parenting mistake where parents inadvertently reinforce negative behaviors by giving in to avoid conflict, which teaches children that negative behavior yields rewards (Patterson, 1980).

The Impact of Parent Conflict on Children

  • Consequences of Parental Conflict

    • Continuous parental conflict can lead children to become anxious or withdrawn, impacting their long-term health and relationships (Miller & Chen, 2010; Narayan et al., 2013).

    • Children may perceive family instability, which leads to anxiety and sadness (Cummings et al., 2012).

    • Conflict can spill over into parent-child dynamics, reducing quality parenting (Kouros et al., 2014).

  • Constructive Conflict Resolution

    • Not all conflict is detrimental; constructive conflict resolution can teach positive problem-solving and reinforce family cohesion (Bergman et al., 2016).

Influence of Work and External Systems on Parenting

  • Work-Related Stress

    • Employment stress can diminish parenting effectiveness, leading to either precarious engagement or decreased warmth (Cooklin et al., 2016; Crouter & Bumpus, 2001).

  • Children’s Contributions to Parenting

    • The child’s age and temperament can influence the parenting approach, with older children requiring different levels of authority and younger children needing more support and warmth.

  • Parenting Evolution Based on Child Characteristics

    • Parents adjust their styles based on their children’s behaviors—for instance, a nurturing approach with easy children versus a more controlling approach with difficult children (Brody et al., 2017).

Sibling Relationships

  • Dynamics of Sibling Interactions

    • Siblings are integral to each other’s development, both positively and negatively—relationships may evolve over time from companionship to rivalry.

    • Older siblings often act as caregivers and role models (Gass et al., 2007; Kim et al., 2007).

  • Qualities of Sibling Relationships

    • High-quality sibling relationships correlate with positive peer and overall well-being (Dirks et al., 2015).

  • Cultural Influences on Sibling Relationships

    • Cultural factors can influence the quality of sibling interactions, with varying emphasis dependent on familial or societal expectations.

Adoption and Family Dynamics

  • Experiences of Adopted Children

    • Many adopted children face early adversity, impacting their development trajectories. Most adopted children thrive, especially with stable post-adoption environments (Grotevant & McDermott, 2014).

  • Identifying Affect of Birth Order

    • Differences exist between first-born and later-born children, with first-borns usually receiving more focused attention (Hotz & Pantano, 2013).

Divorce and Its Effects on Children

  • Impact of Divorce on Children’s Development

    • Children of divorce may experience various emotional and behavioral risks including poor academic performance and relationship issues (Lansford, 2009).

  • Adjustments Post-Divorce

    • Adjustments typically improve over time, particularly in joint custody arrangements where both parents remain actively involved (Baude et al., 2016).

Child Maltreatment

  • Forms of Child Maltreatment

    • Child maltreatment encompasses diverse forms including physical abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, and more (Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 2015).

    • Prevalence estimates suggest that around 700,000 children annually experience maltreatment in the U.S.

  • Factors Contributing to Maltreatment

    • Relationships between cultural, parental, and child factors shape the incidence and nature of child maltreatment (Cicchetti & Toth, 2006).

Friendship Development

  • Concept of Friendship

    • Developments in friendships follow a trajectory from simple, concrete relationships in early childhood to more complex and emotionally supportive associations in adolescence.

    • Girls often emphasize intimacy in friendships and are more likely to share feelings and experiences (Markovits et al., 2001).

  • Positive Outcomes of Friendship

    • Good friendships correlate with higher self-esteem, reduced feelings of loneliness, and better overall emotional resilience in children.

    • Negative friendships or peer influences can lead to or exacerbate bullying behaviors.

Peer Groups and Influence

  • Peer Group Structure

    • Groups are typically hierarchically structured with distinct roles developing within them (leading to dynamics based on dominance and influence).

    • Norms established within groups can pressure members to conform to expected behaviors.

  • Peer Influence on Behavior

    • Both positive and negative peer influences exist, demanding young individuals navigate complex social landscapes (Brown, 2014).

Media Influences

  • Impact of Television and Video Games

    • Television can shape children's behavior patterns; exposure to violence correlates with aggressive tendencies, while educational programming can enhance learning.

    • Video gaming can improve spatial skills but also has darker influences when linked to violence (Calvert et al., 2017).

Addressing Prejudice and Cultural Bias

  • Understanding Bias in Children

    • Children’s early categorizations can lead to prejudiced views; interventions need to promote equity and understanding between diverse groups.

  • Interventions

    • Encouraging interactions across groups and teaching about shared experiences can mitigate prejudice (Cameron et al., 2006).