Anatomy and Physiology Notes

Anatomical Terminology and Body Organization

• ANP-A.5 Learning Objective: Demonstrate anatomical position, planes, directional terms, body cavities, and abdominal quadrants.
  • 1.1.2: Identify locations in the body using anatomical terminology; recognize and communicate body planes, body cavities, directional, and regional terms.

Tissue Types and Microscopy

• ANP-B.4 Learning Objective: Describe the structure and function of the four types of human tissues.
  • 1.1.3: Describe the relationships between cells, tissues, organs, and systems in the human body. Use a microscope to examine tissue samples.

Bones and Bone Features

• ANP-C.2 Learning Objective: Locate and identify individual bones and bone features.
  • 1.1.5: Use proper medical terminology to locate and identify bones and bone features.

Bone Fractures and Diagnostic Imaging

• CME-D.7 Learning Objective: Interpret X-rays to determine specific types of bone fractures.
  • 1.1.6: Identify types of bone fractures in X-ray images. Use diagnostic images to assess patient health.

Muscle Tissue Comparison

• ANP-D.1 Learning Objective: Compare and contrast the structural and functional similarities and differences between skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.
  • 1.2.1: Describe the structure and function of the three types of muscle tissue.

Muscle Identification and Function

• ANP-D.3 Learning Objective: Identify the major muscles on a diagram, model, or through dissection.
  • 1.2.3: Identify muscles that are associated with a patient’s condition. Describe the function and movement of muscle groups.

Synovial Joints

• ANP-C.3 Learning Objective: Identify the various types of synovial joints and the movements they allow for.
  • 1.2.5: Describe the structure of the major types of joints and how these influence mobility and stability.

Nervous System

• ANP-G.1 Learning Objective: Investigate the structural and functional components of the nervous system.
  • 2.1.1: Identify structures and functions of the nervous system.

Action Potentials

• ANP-G.3 Learning Objective: Identify and model how action potentials are generated, the ions and channel proteins involved, and the basic structural and functional aspects which allow for synaptic connection.
  • 2.1.4: Demonstrate how action potentials are generated and how impulses travel along a neuron. Explain how neurons communicate to one another at a synapse.

Pharmacology

• ANP-B.5 Learning Objective: Explain how pharmacological mechanisms affect the body.
  • 2.1.5: Describe mechanisms of actions of different classes of drugs.

Endocrine System

• ANP-J.1 Learning Objective: Investigate the structure and function of the endocrine system.
  • 2.2.1: Describe the basic mechanism of hormone action in the human body.

Variables

• EXD-A.2 Learning Objective: Distinguish between independent and dependent variables.
  • 2.3.1: Conduct background research using credible sources to identify and investigate a relevant research question. Make a prediction and identify the independent and dependent variables.

Cardiovascular System

• ANP-F.1 Learning Objective: Investigate the structures and functions of the cardiovascular system.
  • 3.1.1: Investigate the structures and functions of the cardiovascular system. Describe the path of blood through the heart, the lungs, and the rest of the body.

Blood Filtration and Urine Production

• ANP-A.1 Learning Objective: Model the process of blood filtration and urine production in the kidney.
  • 4.1.1: Investigate the structure and function of the urinary system.

Respiratory System

• ANP-A.1 Learning Objective: Describe the anatomy and physiology of key human body systems as well as the organization and interaction of these systems.
  • 3.1.4: Describe the basic anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system.

Digestive System

• ANP-A.1 Learning Objective: Explain how the digestive system breaks down food into usable nutrients.
  • 4.2.1: Explain how the digestive system breaks down food into usable nutrients.

Lung Volumes and Spirometry

• ANP-I.2 Learning Objective: Investigate lung volume and assess the impacts of varying capacities.
• CME-D.1 Learning Objective: Analyze spirometry data to determine tidal volume, vital capacity, and minute volume.
  • 3.1.6: Measure lung capacity through spirometry. Analyze and interpret evidence and experimental data to draw logical conclusions. Explain how diagnostic tests assess lung function.

Immunity

• ANP-H.3 Learning Objective: Investigate the differences between innate and acquired immunity and explain how these types of immunity defend against infection.
  • 3.2.2: Describe how innate immunity defends against infection. Explain how acquired immunity arises and defends against infection.

Anatomy of the Eye

• ANP-G.4 Learning Objective: Explore the anatomy of the eye, its functional layers, and its function.
  • 3.2.4: Investigate the structures and functions of the human eye.

Nephron Structure and Function

• ANP-L.3 Learning Objective: Illustrate the nephron showing its structural components and the functional processes of filtration, secretion, and reabsorption.
  • 4.1.2:

Biomedical Science Careers

• Biomedical science tracks have their own requirements, coursework, certifications, licensing, and professional resources.
• Some careers require a college degree, while others may require specific certifications or training.

Examples of Healthcare Jobs with Limited Education Requirements

• Home Health Aide: Provides medical care to patients in their homes.
• Phlebotomist: Draws blood from patients for various clinical tests.
• Medical Equipment Technician: Maintains medical equipment.
• Medical Transcriptionist: Translates voice records into written reports.
• Dental Assistant: Prepares patients and tools for dental procedures.
• Sonographer: Obtains images of a patient's abdomen, bones, muscles, or brain.
• Emergency Medical Technician (EMT) and Paramedic: Responds to emergency calls and provides assistance.
• Medical Billing and Coding Specialist: Serves as a point of contact between the doctor’s office and insurance providers.
• Pharmacy Aide: Prepares and dispenses prescription medications.

Physical Therapists

• Help prevent, treat, and rehabilitate patients after injuries
• Work with patients to help them function, move, and live better lives.
• Specialties within the field allow PTs to apply skills to a diverse set of patients and problems.

Biomedical Science Education

• Pursue an Associate’s or Bachelor's degree in a biomedical science program.
• Choosing a college or university can be overwhelming; consider interests, personal needs, and goals.
• Many careers in the biomedical sciences require additional education beyond a Bachelor degree.
  • Often require a Bachelor degree in biology, kinesiology, or other broader science.

Physical Therapists Cohort Patient Terminology

• Cohort Patient: The patient for whom students create a physical therapy and wellness plan (Jackson, Prue, Dillon, Hazel, and Ren).
• Cohort Patient Partner: A pair of students who work together to discuss the same cohort patient, gather and document information on their Cohort Patient Chart, develop a physical therapy and wellness plan, and build anatomy related to their cohort patient on their Maniken®.
• PT Cohort: A group of five students, all with different cohort patients.
• Cohort Patient Chart: A document students use to record medical information, sketches, and a care and rehabilitation plan for their cohort patient.
• GNMH Outpatient Center Portal: A digital space for students to access information related to their cohort patient.

Body Systems Overview

• The body is composed of 11 systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive.
• No model for the integumentary system, which comprises the skin, hair, and nails; functions include protection, absorption, secretion, regulation, and sensation.

Integumentary System

• Skin is the major organ (approximately 22 square feet and 10-11 pounds in adults).
• Accessory organs include hair, nails, sweat glands, and oil glands.
  • Functions: Mechanical, chemical, and biological barrier; thermoregulation; sensations; waste elimination; production of vitamin D.

Skeletal System

• Composed of bones; each bone is an organ.
• Human skeleton contains 206 bones (about 22 lbs in a 125 lb person).
• Joints and cartilage complete the system.
  • Functions: Support; organ protection; muscle attachment; lever system for movement; blood cell formation; mineral storage (calcium and phosphorus).

Muscular System

• Made up of over 600 skeletal muscles (some sources say over 700).
• Muscles make up 50-63 lbs of the weight in a 125 lb adult.
• Attach to bones and contract/relax to cause movement; stabilize body position; generate heat.

Nervous System

• Composed of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and special sense organs; one of the most complex, yet smallest systems of the body.
• Capable of producing electrical messages for communication within the body.
  • Functions: Monitoring internal and external environments; interpret stimuli; respond to stimuli by sending an electrical message to another nerve, muscle, or gland, thus regulating body activities.
  • Special senses are taste, smell, sight, hearing and equilibrium.

Endocrine System

• Composed of glands that secrete hormones locally or into the bloodstream.
  • Glands include pineal, pituitary, hypothalamus, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenals, pancreas, testes, ovaries, and hormone-producing tissue found in other organs.
  • Hormones are chemical messengers that affect a change in a target organ.

Cardiovascular System

• Composed of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
  • The heart is a four-chambered pump
  • Left side pumps blood through arteries to capillaries, right side pumps blood to lungs.
  • Arteries carry blood away and veins carry blood back to the heart.
    • Exceptions: Pulmonary Arteries and Umbilical Arteries (carry oxygen-poor blood), while most veins carry oxygen-depleted blood (exceptions are Pulmonary Veins and Umbilical Veins).
  • Capillaries between arteries and veins release nutrients/oxygen into tissues and receive waste products.
  • All blood circulates through the heart in one minute.
    • Functions: Supply cells with nutrients and oxygen; remove waste products; regulate acid-base balance (pH), water volume, and temperature; defend against disease; mend damaged vessels.

Lymphatic System

• Composed of the spleen, thymus, lymph, lymph nodes, tonsils, and lymph vessels.
  • Functions: Return fluid and proteins to bloodstream; transport lipids from small intestine to bloodstream; house lymphocytes to defend against microbes, foreign cells, toxins, and cancer cells.

Respiratory System

• Composed of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
  • Functions:
    • Bring air from the atmosphere into the lungs.
    • Warm and moisten air in the nasal cavity.
    • Transfer oxygen from inhaled air to the blood, and exchange for carbon dioxide from the blood to be exhaled.
    • Regulate the acid-base balance (pH).
    • Produce sound (air flowing through vocal cords).
    • Healthy adult breathes 12-18 times/minute, exchanging 6 liters of gas.

Urinary System

• Composed of two kidneys, two ureters, one bladder, and one urethra.
  • Functions: Filter blood, eliminate waste products, regulate fluid and chemical composition of blood, maintain acid-base balance, maintain mineral homeostasis, and produce urine.
    • Each day 180 liters of water are removed, 178-179 liters returned, producing 1-2 liters of urine.
    • Regulates red blood cell production.

Digestive System

• Composed of structures through which ingested material passes, such as the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and anus.
  • Accessory organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, gallbladder, liver, and pancreas.
  • Food not considered “in” the body until digested and absorbed.

Reproductive Systems

• Female: uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and vagina.
  • Produces, stores, and transports gametes (eggs); produces hormones (estrogen and progesterone); nourishes and supports embryo/fetus; delivers baby.
• Male: testes, epididymis, ductus deferens, and penis.
  • Produces, stores and transports gametes (sperm); produces hormones (testosterone).
  • Both systems work together to produce human offspring.

Historical Highlight: Anatomical Dissections

• Anatomy is the oldest scientific discipline of medicine.
• The first documented scientific dissections of the human body were done in the 3rd century B.C.
• Renaissance: Artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo began dissections of human corpses for art.
• Leonardo da Vinci dissected more than 30 human corpses.

Anatomical Position

• Standard body orientation for describing body parts and locations.
• Body standing up straight with arms hanging at the sides and palms facing forward.
• Medical professionals need a common language to talk about injury, disease, and rehabilitation.

Directional Terms

• Describe the location of one structure in relation to another.
• Used to indicate specific locations on organs or bones.
  • Anterior: Situated before or toward the front.
  • Posterior: Situated behind or toward the back.
  • Superior: Situated higher up.
  • Inferior: Situated lower down.
  • Medial: In or toward the middle.
  • Lateral: Side away from the midline; typically refers to the outer side of a body part.
  • Distal: Away from the point of origin (usually refers to extremities like arms and legs); example: the toes are distal to the kneecap.
  • Proximal: Nearest to the point of origin (usually refers to extremities like arms and legs); example: the humerus is proximal to the fingers.
  • Superficial: On the surface or shallow; opposite of deep.
  • Deep: Away from the surface or further into the body; opposite of superficial.
  • Ventral: Pertaining to the front or anterior of any structure; anterior.
  • Dorsal: Relating to the back part of a structure; posterior.

Regional Terms

• Compartmentalize the human body; a region refers to a certain area.
• Two main divisions: axial and appendicular.
  • Axial division: Head, neck, and trunk.
  • Appendicular division: Appendages or limbs attached to the body’s axis.
• Abdominal: Related to the abdomen (belly).
• Antecubital: Related to the inner or front surface of the forearm.
• Axillary: Related to the axilla (armpit).
• Brachial: Related to the arm.
• Buccal: Related to the mouth.
• Calcaneal: Related to the heel or the calcaneus (heel bone).
• Carpal: Related to the carpus, a group of 7 bones that make up the wrist (trapezoid, trapezium, scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, hamate, and capitate).
• Cephalic: Related to the head.
• Cervical: Related to the cervix or the neck (cervical vertebrae form the neck).
• Coxal: Pertaining to the hip.
• Digital: Pertaining to a finger or toe.
• Femoral: Pertaining to the femur or the thigh.
• Gluteal: Pertaining to the buttocks.
• Inguinal: Pertaining to the groin.
• Lumbar: Relating to the loins or the part of the back between the ribs and pelvis.
• Nasal: Related to the nose.
• Occipital: Related to the occiput (back of the head).
• Olecranal: Related to the olecranon, a large process of the ulna that forms the bony prominence of the elbow.
• Oral: Related to the mouth.
• Orbital: Relating to the orbits (eye sockets).
• Patellar: Related to the patella (large sesamoid bone that forms the anterior knee).
• Pelvic: Related to the pelvis formed by the pubic bone, ilium, ischium, sacrum and coccyx.
• Popliteal: Pertaining to the area behind the knee.
• Sacral: Pertaining to the sacrum (triangular bone made up of 5 fused vertebrae that joins the two hip bones posteriorly).
• Scapular: Related to the scapula (shoulder blade), a flat triangular bone that forms the back of the shoulder and rests on the ribs.
• Sternal: Related to the sternum, a flat bone forming the center of the anterior wall of the thorax and that articulates with the ribs.
• Tarsal: Related to the tarsus, the 7 bones that make up the ankle (talus, calcaneus, navicular, cuboid, and medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiform bones).
• Thoracic: Related to the thorax (chest), the upper part of the trunk that contains the heart and the lungs.
• Umbilical: Related to the umbilicus (navel), usually a depressed scar where the umbilical cord entered the fetus.
• Vertebral: Related to the vertebrae, cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the body that make up the vertebral column (backbone).

Body Cavities and Planes

• Body cavities: Spaces containing internal organs (viscera).
  maintain the body's internal organization.
• They contain fluid to protect delicate internal organs by providing room for the organs to change in size and shape as they perform their functions.
• Body planes: Imaginary, two-dimensional surfaces used to study organs or structures in different views. (coronal, sagittal, and transverse).
  • Coronal Plane: Divides the body vertically into anterior and posterior portions.
  • Sagittal Plane: Divides the body vertically into unequal right and left portions.
  • Transverse Plane: Divides the body horizontally into superior and inferior portions.
  • Median Plane: Divides the body vertically into equal left and right portions.

Body Cavities

• Cranial cavity: Inside the skull, contains the brain.
  • Cranial means “pertaining to the skull”.
• Dorsal body cavity: On the posterior surface, including the cranial cavity and the spinal cavity.
• Pelvic cavity: Space below the abdomen; part of the ventral body cavity; contains the urinary bladder, urethra, uterus, vagina, part of the large intestine and the rectum.
• Ventral body cavity: Anterior to the dorsal cavity; made up of the thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity.
• Thoracic (chest) cavity: Part of the ventral body cavity; contains the esophagus, trachea, lungs, heart and aorta; divided into the pleural cavity (surrounds lungs) and the mediastinum (between the lungs).
• Vertebral cavity: Part of the dorsal cavity; consists of the spinal column, which contains the spinal cord, connecting to the cranial cavity.
• Abdominal cavity: Part of the ventral body cavity; contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, gallbladder, pancreas, ureters, and kidneys.
• Abdomino-pelvic cavity: Part of the ventral cavity; consists of the abdominal cavity (superior) and pelvic cavity (inferior); contains the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal reproductive organs.

Tissue Types

• The human body is organized in levels that build into a complex living system, starting with the cell.
  • Functioning cells form tissues.
  • Groups of tissues form organs.
  • Groups of organs form organ systems.
• Four main tissue types: nervous, epithelial, muscle, and connective.
  • Nervous tissue: Composes nerves, spinal cord, and brain; made up of neurons; receives, interprets, and responds to signals.
  • Epithelial tissue: Composed of epithelial cells in sheets; lines outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels, in the mouth, and on the surfaces of humans; works to absorb, secrete, protect, and sense.
    • Outer layer of skin and lining of respiratory tract are examples.
  • Muscle tissue: Makes up the muscles in the body; can be striated, smooth, or cardiac.
    • Striated muscle (skeletal) is attached to bones.
    • Smooth muscle is in the walls of internal organs.
    • Cardiac muscle is in the walls of the heart.
  • Connective tissue: Supports and connects other tissue types; holds organs in place, attaches muscle to bones, links bones with joints, and enables tissues to stretch.
    • Adipose tissue (fat) is a type of connective tissue

Bones of the Skull

• 22 bones make up most adult human skulls: one frontal, two parietals, two temporal, one occipital, one sphenoid, one ethmoid, two nasal conchae, two nasal bones, two maxilla bones, two palatine bones, two lacrimal bones, two zygomatic bones, the mandible, and the vomer.

Histologist

• Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of tissues; histologists are the professionals who perform this work.
• Histologists are trained to look for changes or variations in tissues that can indicate damage, disease, or other conditions.

Bell’s Palsy

• A neurological disorder that affects the facial nerve, the seventh cranial nerve.
• Patients with Bell’s Palsy will have weakness or paralysis of the muscles on one side of the face.
• It can be caused by a dormant viral infection, impaired immunity (stress, sleep deprivation, trauma, or illness), inflammation of the facial nerve caused by infection, or damage to the myelin sheath that surrounds the axons of nerves.

Muscles of the Head

• 26 muscles on the head.
• Orbicularis oculi: a sphincter muscle arranged in concentric bands around the eye socket; its main function is to close the eyelids by contracting.
• Orbicularis oris: a sphincter muscle that surrounds the lips and encircles the mouth; it consists of fibers from other facial muscles that are inserted into the lips.
• Temporalis muscle: thin, fan-shaped muscle that covers the side of the skull; it is one of the muscles used in mastication (chewing).

Bone Structure and Function

• Bones combine lightness, flexibility, and strength.
• Bone provides a tough, flexible frame for the body while still being living tissue.
• Pound for pound, bone is stronger than concrete.
• Cells and protein fibers are wrapped inside layers of hard mineral salts.
• Cells are constantly remodeling and replacing old or damaged bone.
• Blood vessels and nerves bring needed nutrients and signals to the cells in this hard matrix.
• Bones withstand stress and protect internal organs.

Types of Bones

• Bones are classified by shape and structure into four categories.
• Flat bones: Consist of a layer of spongy bone between two layers of compact bone; have marrow but lack a marrow cavity; frontal, parietal, occipital, nasal, lacrimal, vomer, sternum, scapula, and ribs.
• Long bones: Consist of a shaft and two ends; longer than they are wide; consist of a thick outside layer with a marrow-filled cavity; ends contain spongy bone; humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges.
  • Epiphysis: At the ends, covered with hyaline cartilage for articulating bones; cancellous bone.
  • Diaphysis: Shaft, covered with periosteum; medullary canal with yellow and red marrow (lined with endosteum); covered with periosteum for bone growth, repair, and nutrition; compact bone.
• Irregular bones: Consist of thin layers of spongy bone surrounded by compact bone; do not fit previous descriptions; vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid, zygomatic, maxilla, mandible, palatine, inferior nasal concha, and hyoid.
• Short bones: Roughly cube-shaped; vertical and horizontal dimensions approximately equal; consist mostly of spongy bone with an outside surface made of a thin layer of compact bone; carpals and tarsals.

Bone Marrow

• Soft (spongy), fatty tissue found in the center of most bones.
• Yellow marrow: Found in the medullary cavity of long bones and serves as fat storage.
• Red marrow: Hematopoietic tissue; makes bone marrow stem cells which produce red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
• Lamellae: Concentric cylinder shaped calcified structure.
• Compact bone is very dense, stress bearing bone.
• Haversian Systems which contain lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, and canaliculi,
• Lacunae: Small spaces containing tissue fluid.
• Osteocytes: Facilitate exchange of calcium between blood and bone.
• Canaliculi: Canals connecting the lacunae together and to the haversian canal which carries nutrients and wastes to and from the osteocytes.
• Spongy (cancellous) bone is a light, spongy bone.
• Found in low stress areas where weight of bone would be a problem such as at the ends of long bones, ribs, sternum, hips, vertebrae, and cranium.
• Spongy bone has no haversian systems and consists of a web-like arrangement.

The Periosteum

• A dense, fibrous membrane covering bone.
• It contains blood vessels and is essential for bone cell survival and bone formation.

Bone Composition

• Made up of collagen and inorganic calcium salts (Vitamin D essential for absorption of minerals like calcium).
• Deposition favored by estrogen/testosterone, alkaline phosphatase, thyrocalcitonin, and mechanical stress.
• Weakening favored by parathormone and inactivity.

Bone Growth

*Made up of different cells that have different functions.

• Osteoblasts: Responsible for bone building; they are bone repairing cells in the periosteum.
• Osteocytes: Mature bone cells within the bone matrix.
• Osteoclast: Reabsorbs old bone so that osteoblasts can build new bone.
• Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal line and grow in width by the addition of bone to the surface.
• Bone growth controlled by the anterior pituitary, which produces and releases Human Growth Hormone (HGH).
  *When the anterior pituitary does not produce enough HGH, this can lead to dwarfism.
  *When the anterior pituitary produces too much HGH, this can lead to gigantism.
  *If the anterior pituitary produces too much HGH after puberty, this can lead to acromegaly which manifests as enlargement of the bones of hands, feet, and face.

Muscle

*An organ composed of one of the three types of fibrous tissue (skeletal, cardiac, and smooth), specialized for contraction to produce voluntary and involuntary movements of parts of the body.

Tendon

• A flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue attaching a muscle to a bone.

Contraction

• A process leading to shortening and/or development of tension in muscle tissue.

Skeletal Muscle

• An organ specialized for contraction, composed of striated muscle fibers (cells), supported by connective tissue, attached to bone by a tendon or aponeurosis, and stimulated by somatic motor neurons.

Smooth Muscle

• A tissue specialized for contraction, composed of smooth muscle fibers (cells), located in the walls of hollow internal organs, and innervated by the autonomic motor neurons.

Cardiac Muscle

• Striated muscle fibers (cells) that form the wall of the heart; stimulated by the intrinsic conduction system and autonomic motor neurons.

Excitability

• ability to receive and respond to a stimulus (neurotransmitter, hormone, local change in pH); response is the generation and transmission of an electrical current (action potential).
  a. Skeletal muscle responds to stimulus quickly with forceful contraction and then relaxes promptly.
  b. Visceral muscle responds slowly, maintaining contraction over a longer period of time.
  c. Cardiac muscle is quicker than visceral muscle and contraction is stronger but of longer duration.

Contractility

• ability to shorten forcibly.

Extensibility

• ability to be stretched.

Elasticity

• ability to resume resting length (of muscle fiber) after being stretched.

Automaticity

• ability of muscle to contract without a nerve supply.

Involuntary

• function without conscious thought or control (autonomic nervous system control).

Voluntary

• a person has control over their action (central and peripheral nervous system control).

Endomysium

• fine sheath of areolar connective tissue around each muscle fiber.

Perimysium

• collagenic sheath around several muscle fibers bundled together (fascicles).

Epimysium

• dense fibrous connective tissue surrounding the entire muscle.

Deep fascia

• fibrous connective tissue that binds muscles into functional groups and wraps other structures.

Adenosine Tri-Phospate (ATP)

• A compound composed of adenosine and three phosphate groups, which supplies energy for many biochemical cellular processes.

Sarcomere

• Any of the repeating structural units of striated muscle fibrils.

Actin

• A contractile protein that is part of the thin filaments in muscle fibers.

Myosin

• The contractile protein that makes up the thick filaments of muscle fibers.

Sliding Filament Theory

*The explanation of how thick and thin filaments slide relative to one another during striated muscle contraction to decrease sarcomere length

Endomysium

• The delicate connective tissue surrounding the individual muscle fibers within the smallest bundles.

Epimysium

• The external connective-tissue sheath of a muscle.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

• elaborate smooth endoplasmic reticulum surrounding each myofibril; regulates intracellular levels of ionic calcium (stores and releases it on demand).

T-tubules

• where sarcolemma (plasma membrane) penetrates the cell to form a hollow elongated tube; it conducts nerve impulses to the deepest regions of muscle cells.

Troponin

• A protein of muscle that together with tropomyosin forms a regulatory protein complex controlling the interaction of actin and myosin and that when combined with calcium ions permits muscular contraction.

Tropomyosin

• A protein of muscle that forms a complex with troponin regulating the interaction of actin and myosin in muscle contraction.

Goniometry

• measurement of joint movement.

Adduction

• moving a body part toward the midline.

Abduction

• moving a body part away from the midline.

Flexion

• decreasing the angle at a joint.

Extension

• increasing the angle at a joint.

Hyperextension

• increases the angle beyond the anatomical position.

Circumduction

• the distal end of an extremity inscribes a circle while the shaft inscribes a cone.

Rotation

• revolving a part about the longitudinal axis.
  a. Internal: move toward the midline or medially.
  b. External: move away from the midline or laterally.

Supination

• turn the palm upward; “what’s up?”

Pronation

• turn the palm downward.

Inversion

• turn the plantar surface towards the midline.

Plantar flexion (extension)

• move sole of foot downward as in standing on toes.

Dorsiflexion

• move the sole of the foot upward.

Perimysium

• The connective-tissue sheath that surrounds a muscle and forms sheaths for the bundles of muscle fibers.

Fascicle

• A small bundle or cluster, especially of nerve or muscle fibers.

Myofibril

• A threadlike structure, extending longitudinally through a muscle fiber (cell) consisting mainly of thick filaments (myosin) and thin filaments (actin, troponin, and tropomyosin).

Fibrous Joint

• A fixed, or immovable, joint that connects bones. It is made primarily of collagen.

Cartilaginous Joint

• A joint that has some motion to it with hyaline cartilage present, in the space between articulating bones.

Sinovial Joint

• A moveable joint that contains synovial fluid in the space around it to reduce friction; the most common type of joint in the body.

Cartilage

• Flexible connective tissue that provides shape and support to various body parts and cushions bones, allowing for movement and flexibility.

Articular (Hyaline) Cartilage

• hyaline cartilage attached to articular bone structures.

Elastic Cartilage

• A spongy, yellow, elastic network of fibers that provide support to body structure.

Fibrocartilage

• The strongest type of cartilage that provides support, rigidity, and cushioning to parts of the body.

Muscle Tissues

• When we think of muscles, we usually focus on the muscles that move our bones and allow us to move about the Earth.
  * These muscles are attached to bones with tough cords or sheets of connective tissue called tendons, and these bones meet other bones at joints.
  * Muscle Tissue Types: Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle.

Cardiac muscle

• forms the walls of the heart and contracts to circulate blood.
  *It is striated (banded) with abundant mitochondria and involuntary which means that it functions without conscious thought or control (autonomic nervous system control).
  efferent nerves control rate of contraction based on needs of the body, while afferent nerves are concerned with sensations of pain, spasm, and stretch.
  Cardiac muscle contracts at a steady rate except for brief bursts of rapid rate; automaticity.

Smooth muscle,

• also known as visceral muscle, is found in the walls of hollow internal (visceral) organs of the body including:
  *Gastrointestinal Tract: found in the esophagus, stomach, and intestines for propulsion of food bolus.
  *Cardiovascular System: found in blood vessels and lymphatic vessels and regulates blood flow and pressure via vascular resistance.
  *Urinary System: found in the urinary bladder and regulates urine flow.
  *Reproductive System: found in the uterus for contractions during pregnancy and in the male