Study Notes on US Foreign Policy

IR1006: Foreign Policy and Diplomacy in Global Politics Week 7, 2026: US Foreign Policy Professor Phillips O’Brien Lecture 1: The Structure and Making of US Foreign Policy

Lecture Overview

  • Two main purposes:
    1. The Structure of US Foreign Policy Making
    2. Pressures that help shape US Foreign Policy
    3. Different ideas on what drives US foreign policy, discussed from theoretical perspectives.

The Structure of US Foreign/Strategic Policy Making

  • Historical Context:
    • Basic structure established in Philadelphia at the Constitutional Convention in 1787.
    • Foreign/Strategic Policy considered a crucial factor for the new nation’s existence after securing independence through foreign relations and military conflict.
  • Perception of the US:
    • The United States initially perceived itself as small and weak, necessitating the construction of a policy-making structure to protect the country until it could assert itself.
  • Future Aspirations:
    • There was a widespread belief that the US would eventually become a significant power on the global stage.

The Dominant Role of the Presidency

  • Presidential Authority in Foreign Policy:
    • The President plays a crucial role in the making of US Foreign Policy, as established in 1787.
    • Key presidential functions include:
    • Appointing the Secretary of State and ambassadors.
    • Leading negotiations with foreign nations.
    • Serving as Commander in Chief of all US armed forces, maintaining direct command over military operations.

Congressional Authority

  • Limited but Significant Influence:
    • Congressional authority acts more as a form of negation or persuasion rather than direct control.
    • Senate's Exclusive Powers:
    • The Senate alone approves presidential appointments.
    • The Senate alone ratifies treaties through a two-thirds vote, illustrated with the League of Nations as an example.
    • Oversight and Legislation:
    • Congressional oversight committees (Intelligence, Foreign Affairs) exert some influence.
    • Congress can enact legislation (e.g., Magnitsky Act) to affect foreign relations.
    • Only Congress has the authority to declare war as per the War Powers Act of 1973.
    • Congress also approves all government spending, impacting foreign policy funding.

Expansion of Presidential Power in the 20th Century

  • Growth of Power Tools:
    • The expansion of the US National Security State has endowed the President with a vast range of power tools.
    • Emergence of large bureaucracies, especially post-World War II.
    • Military Dominance:
    • Post-WWII, the US maintains the world's most powerful military, influencing its ongoing strategic effectiveness.
    • Key Institutions Developed:
    • Establishment of the CIA in 1947.
    • Establishment of the National Security Council (NSC) in 1948.
    • Establishment of the National Security Agency (NSA) in 1952, noted for minimal oversight.
    • Executive Orders/Agreements:
    • Increased use and reliance on executive orders and agreements to assert influence and implement policy.

Non-Governmental Pressure: Popular Democracy

  • Role of NGOs and Popular Protest:
    • Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and public protests have occasionally shaped foreign policy, though measurement of their impact can be complex.
    • The US has a long-standing culture of popular protest, evident since the American Revolution and seen in various significant movements, such as anti-Vietnam War protests in the 1960s.
  • Public Sentiment’s Influence:
    • American public reaction to warfare and international commitments plays a crucial role, as political leaders often seek reelection.
  • Model of Behavior in Response to War:
    • Different frameworks exist to understand public response:
    • Elite Shaping: How elite narratives shape public perception.
    • Casualties: The impact of military casualties on public opinion.
    • Victory: How successful military engagements influence domestic support.
    • Identity: National identity and its evolution in response to foreign policy actions.
  • Evidence of Diverse Models:
    • Evidence supports various models explaining the interplay of public opinion and foreign policy.

Growth of US Economic Interest as an Element of Foreign Policy

  • Economic Motivations:
    • A significant expansion of economic interests beginning in the late 19th century created incentives for capital interests to seek protection from US power.
    • Example: Relations and interests in the Persian Gulf.
  • Military-Industrial Complex:
    • A term popularized by Eisenhower in 1960 to describe the interdependence of a nation’s military and defense industries.
  • Export Power:
    • Post-WWII, the US emerged as the world’s largest arms exporter, shaping global military dynamics.
  • Economic Responsibilities:
    • The US acts as a protector of world trade, controlling crucial sea lanes.

What Drives US Foreign Policy?

  • Scholarship and Debate:
    • The motivations behind US foreign policy remain a contentious subject within academic circles, with multiple theories proposed over the years.
  • Different Drivers:
    • Proponents suggest various underlying motivations, including:
    • Security: Primarily framed through Realism and Neo-Realism perspectives.
    • Capitalism: Explored through Marxist critiques.
    • Ideological Influence: Examined through frameworks like Constructivism, which emphasizes belief structures such as ideology and religion.
  • Foundational Text:
    • Washington’s Farewell Address (1796) is often recognized as a primary doctrinal statement regarding early US foreign policy formulation, emphasizing simplicity in foreign relations while prioritizing economic interests.

Two Key Elements: Economic Interest and Security Concerns

  • Washington’s Guidelines (1796):
    • The great rule of conduct concerning foreign nations is to engage commercially with minimal political connection.
    • Existing engagements should be fulfilled in good faith.
    • The US should not entangle itself in European conflicts, which possess little relevance to its primary interests, advocating for peace or war to be guided by justice and national interest rather than artificial ties.
  • Future Policy Consideration:
    • Washington implies that maintaining a strong and unified nation will eventually lead to the capability to deter external threats and conflict.

What Does Security Mean to the USA?

  • Complex Conceptualization:
    • While seemingly straightforward, the meaning of security can be nuanced and complicated.
  • Historical Context of Threats:
    • The US has not faced significant threats on its borders since 1847, leading to a shift in how it perceives security threats.
    • Post-1917 Threats Include:
    • Prussian Militarism: Engaged during WWI, contributing to international instability.
    • Fascism: Emerged as a significant threat leading to WWII.
    • Communism: Presenting challenges during the Cold War era.
    • Terrorism: A key concern post-9/11 attacks.
  • Contemporary Patterns of Threats:
    • The shifting definitions of security may reflect underlying patterns of behavior regarding international relations and defense strategies.