Nationalism

What were the major ideas associated with conservatism, liberalism, and nationalism, and what role did each ideology play in Europe between 1800 and 1850?
What were the causes of the revolutions of 1848, and why did these revolutions fail?

Definition and Key Ideas
- Legitimacy: Restoration of legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions.
- Conservatism: Emphasis on obedience to political authority.
- Intervention: The right of powerful countries to send armies to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.
Historical Context
- After the defeat of Napoleon, traditional powers in Europe aimed to restore power to monarchs, leading to the Congress of Vienna in 1814, which sought stability against revolutionary movements.

Liberalism
- Fundamental Principle: The belief that people should be as free from restraint as possible.
- Emphasizes natural rights, including freedom of speech, press, assembly, and equality before the law; these should be guaranteed in a written document.
- Legislative power should be derived from a legislature elected by the people, though historically it was often limited to property-owning males.
Nationalism
- Definition: A sense of pride in the community, characterized by shared traditions, customs, and languages, with allegiance to the nation rather than a monarch.
- Nationalism inherently threatened the established balance of power in Europe.
- The conjunction of nationalism and liberalism was seen as a challenge to authority, provoking repression from the Concert of Europe.

Post-Napoleonic Context
- Traditional powers in Europe reacted against the liberal ideas and nationalism that arose during the French Revolution, advocating for the status quo.
- The Concert of Europe was formed for collective security and intervention to suppress revolutions.

Groups Involved: Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria, and later France.
- Objective: To maintain peace and crush rebellions to uphold the traditional order.
- Intervention: Nations were permitted to intervene in any state experiencing major civil unrest aimed at preserving monarchs.

The revolutions of 1848 began in France and inspired widespread revolts across Europe, failing to unify or establish lasting changes.
Key Causes
- Agricultural Depression: Poor harvests in 1846 and 1847 led to food shortages.
- Economic Displacement: An increase of workers seeking middle-class jobs that were not available.
Phases of the Revolutions
- February to May 1848: Initial successes included significant concessions from monarchs, such as abdication and new constitutions, notably:
- February (France): King Louis Philippe abdicates.
- March (Italy): King Charles Albert grants a constitution.
- March (Austria): Chancellor Metternich resigns; Hungarian independence movement surfaces.
- March (Prussia): Wilhelm IV promises a constitution, advocating for German unity.
- June to December 1848: Revolutions faced setbacks; Austrian authority was reasserted, and the promised reforms did not come to fruition.
- 1849-1851: Continued failures:
- In Italy, the Roman Republic was overthrown by the French; upheaval continued in Hungary and Austria.
- Louis-Napoleon proclaimed himself dictator in France, effectively ending the republican experiment.

The Ottoman Empire: A declining power near Russia; concern over potential Russian expansion into the Mediterranean upon Ottoman collapse.
The Crimean War (1853-1856): A result of tensions related to the weakening Ottoman Empire and the competing interests of Great Powers, including Britain, Russia, and France, leading to further breakdown of the Concert of Europe.

Key Figures: King Victor Emmanuel II and Count Camillo di Cavour, who provided leadership and economic expansion that enabled military advancement.
Major Events:
- Giuseppe Garibaldi: Led the Red Shirts in the conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
- Franco-Austrian War (1859): Piedmont forces provoked Austria into a conflict, successfully gaining Lombardy.
- Austro-Prussian War (1866): Alliance with Prussia provided Italy with Venetia.
- Franco-Prussian War (1870): Withdrawal of French troops from Rome facilitated its annexation, leading to the declaration of the Kingdom of Italy on March 17, 1861.

Prussia Under Bismarck: Count Otto von Bismarck's Realpolitik steered aggressive foreign policy that fostered German unity through military action.
Strategic Wars:
- Defeat of Denmark (1864) with Austria's support; subsequent win against Austria (1866) solidified Prussia’s dominance and led to the formation of the North German Confederation.
- Franco-Prussian War (1870): Prussia's victory solidified German alliances and culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire on January 18, 1871, with Kaiser Wilhelm I as emperor.

Great Britain: Politically stable with gradual expansion of suffrage and social reforms.
France: Endured shifts leading to the establishment of the Third Republic post-Franco-Prussian War, but suffered political instability.
Austria-Hungary: Resulted from compromises after national uprisings; created dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary distinguishing administration between Vienna and Budapest.
Russia: Emancipation of serfs amid societal tension and attempts to maintain autocratic control under Tsar Nicholas II, alongside political reforms like the Duma.

European Alliances: Formation of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the opposing Triple Entente (Great Britain, France, Russia), leading to heightened tensions.
Balkan Crisis: Nationalist sentiments proliferated; the annexation of territories by Austria-Hungary directly led to conflicts with Serbia, setting the stage for World War I.

The 1848 revolutions represented a critical juncture in European history, illustrating the struggle for liberal reforms amidst nationalist aspirations. Despite their initial successes, the revolutions ultimately did not realize lasting changes, which set the stage for the precarious political landscape leading into the 20th century.

Nationalism emerged as a powerful motivating force for movements seeking unification in both Italy and Germany.
The failure of the 1848 revolutions demonstrated the resilience of conservative powers against the rising tide of change.