Society and Culture in Ancient China: Exhaustive Study Guide

Citizenship, Mandate, and Democratic Principles

In the study of government and civic engagement, the word mandate refers to an official order to perform a specific task or the possession of clear authority to take action. Within the context of the United States, voters grant a mandate to government officials by electing them to office. During political campaigns, candidates often highlight specific issues to draw public attention. If these candidates are successfully elected, they are viewed as having a mandate to implement the actions and policies discussed during their campaign. However, in instances where an election is very close, the public and political analysts often debate whether the elected official truly possesses a valid mandate from the people.

Economic and Technological Advancements of the Zhou Dynasty

For many centuries, Chinese farmers were entirely dependent on rainfall to water their crops. This changed under the rule of the Zhou kings, as the Chinese developed sophisticated new systems to irrigate the land. This improved water supply allowed farmers to grow a greater surplus of crops than ever before in their history. Along with agricultural growth, China's trade networks expanded significantly. Archaeological evidence supports the reach of this trade, as pieces of Chinese silk have been discovered in central Asia and as far as Greece.

The Period of the Warring States

Over the course of the Zhou kingdom, the aristocrats who ruled various territories became increasingly powerful. Eventually, these aristocrats began to ignore the kings' commands and fought one another for dominance. These internal conflicts originated in the $400s\text{ B.C.E.}$ and persisted for nearly $200\text{ years}$. This era is known in Chinese history as the "Period of the Warring States" because each aristocrat formed his own independent state and fought for control. To populate their armies, aristocrats forced farmers to serve as soldiers. Initially, these soldiers used swords, spears, and crossbows. As the wars progressed, warriors began using horses, leading to the Chinese development of the saddle and stirrup. These inventions allowed soldiers to ride across the battlefield while simultaneously throwing spears or firing crossbows. The prolonged warfare of this period ultimately paved the way for the rise of a new dynasty.

Introduction to Society and Culture in Ancient China

Master Confucius spoke extensively about the requirements for living a good life. He utilized the example of a man he admired named Tsze-ch'an, whom he described as a model of behavior because he carefully considered his words and conduct. According to Confucius in the Analects (compiled between $475\text{ B.C.E.}$ and $221\text{ B.C.E.}$), Tsze-ch'an possessed four characteristics of a superior man: he was humble in his conduct, respectful in serving his superiors, kind in nourishing the people, and just in ordering the people. Confucius taught that a superior man could avoid overstepping what is right by extensively studying all learning and keeping himself under the restraint of the rules of propriety. Architectural tributes to these teachings, such as the Confucius Temple of Kaohsiung (originally built in $1684$ and modeled after Song dynasty architecture from $960\text{ C.E.}$ to $1279\text{ C.E.}$), continue to honor his legacy.

Development of the Three Chinese Philosophies

Between $500\text{ B.C.E.}$ and $200\text{ B.C.E.}$, Chinese thinkers developed three major philosophies—Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism—in response to the violence and social disorder of the Period of the Warring States. While different in their approaches, all three shared the common goal of creating a peaceful and well-run society.

Confucianism was founded by Confucius, who was born around $550\text{ B.C.E.}$ to a farming family. He criticized the misrule of kings and urged people to follow the beliefs of their ancestors to restore harmony. The central tenet of Confucianism is duty, which requires an individual to place the needs of the family and community above their own. This includes specific relational duties: parents must love children, children must respect parents, husbands must support wives, and wives must obey husbands. Rulers have a duty to rule justly and set a moral example, while subjects must be loyal. Confucius also advocated for the Golden Rule: "Do unto others as you would have others do unto you." He believed government service should be open to all men of talent and education, rather than just the nobility. This led to the eventual development of civil service tests, strengthening the government. His sayings were collected by followers in the Analects after his death in $479\text{ B.C.E.}$.

Daoism, or "the Way," was based on the ideas of Laozi, who is believed to have lived during the same era as Confucius. Daoism teaches that people should achieve a good life by freeing themselves from worldly desires and living simply in harmony with nature and the "Dao," a spiritual force that guides all things. Unlike Confucianism, which encourages hard work to improve the world, Daoism teaches people to turn away from worldly affairs. Many Chinese people historically followed both philosophies, seeing them as complementary.

Legalism, known as the "School of Law," was introduced by the thinker Hanfeizi during the $200s\text{ B.C.E.}$. Hanfeizi disagreed with Confucius and Laozi, arguing that humans are naturally evil. He believed that a system of strict laws and harsh punishments was necessary to force people to fulfill their duties. Aristocrats favored Legalism because it emphasized force and did not require rulers to consider the wishes or needs of the populace, often resulting in cruel punishments for minor offenses.

Social Structure and Daily Life in Ancient China

Early Chinese society was divided into four distinct social classes based on economic and social position: land-owning aristocrats, farmers, artisans, and merchants.

Aristocratic families were wealthy and owned large estates. They lived in tile-roofed houses with courtyards and gardens, protected by walls to keep out bandits. Their homes were decorated with fine furniture and carpets. Land ownership was divided equally among all male heirs after a father's death, meaning that over generations, individual holdings became smaller.

Farmers constituted approximately nine out of ten people in China. They lived in rural villages surrounded by mud walls. Farmers rented land from aristocrats by giving them a portion of their crops. In the north, they grew wheat and millet, while in the warmer, wetter south, they grew rice. Farmers owned small plots for personal food but were required by the government to pay taxes, serve in the military during wartime, and perform one month of forced labor annually on public projects like roads. They also faced constant threats from famine and floods.

Artisans were skilled workers who crafted iron tools, weapons, silk cloth, and vessels made of bronze or jade. They were often architects, artists, or woodworkers who passed their skills from father to son.

Merchants included shopkeepers, traders, and bankers. While some became wealthy providing goods to aristocrats, they were not respected. Society perceived them as working only for personal gain rather than the public good. Consequently, merchants were barred from holding government positions.

Family Dynamics and Gender Roles

The family was the central unit of Chinese society. Large families were preferred to provide workers for the fields. Chinese families practiced filial piety, which refers to the responsibility of children to respect, obey, and care for their parents as they age. The head of the family was the oldest male, usually the father, and his needs were prioritized by all members.

Men and women had strictly defined roles. Men were highly respected for their work in farming, attending school, running the government, and fighting wars. Women were generally expected to obey their husbands, fathers, and brothers. Their primary responsibilities were raising children, overseeing their education, and managing household finances. Despite these restrictions, some educated women created works of writing during this period.

Questions & Discussion

IDENTIFYING EFFECTS: How did the Mandate of Heaven change Zhou culture? (Note: The transcript mentions the concept of a mandate in the civic sense and refers to Zhou irrigation and trade, but does not explicitly detail the religious 'Mandate of Heaven' change in this specific text segment, focusing instead on the definition of mandate and the transition to the Warring States period.)

SUMMARIZING: What technology was developed in China during the Zhou dynasty? Significant developments included irrigation systems, iron tools, silk cloth, bronze and jade vessels, and military technology such as the crossbow, saddle, and stirrup.

DESCRIBING: What geographic features isolated ancient China from other civilizations? (Note: Mentioned as a review question, though specific features like the Gobi Desert or Himalayas are implied geographical knowledge in the context of China's isolation.)

EXPLAINING IDEAS: What was the chief duty of Zhou kings? While the text focuses on the later decline of their power, the kings were originally responsible for commanding the aristocrats and maintaining the kingdom's unity before the Period of the Warring States.

IDENTIFYING PERSPECTIVES: Why did many aristocrats support legalism? Aristocrats supported Legalism because it emphasized the use of force and did not require rulers to take the needs or wishes of the people into consideration, thereby maintaining the aristocrats' power through strict control.

INFERRING: Restate Laozi's quote: "A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step." This implies that even the largest or most difficult tasks start with a small, simple action.

WRITING ABOUT HISTORY: Why is "China's Sorrow" an appropriate description of the Huang He? (Note: This is a writing prompt based on the common historical knowledge that the Huang He, or Yellow River, caused devastating floods that killed millions, though the specific term "China's Sorrow" is mentioned as a prompt title.)