The Modern State and the Age of Liberalism, 1945–1980

The Carter Administration and Economic Challenges

Jimmy Carter's presidency faced significant economic headwinds, including an inflation rate exceeding 11%, struggling industries, and energy crises. His attempts to address these issues included:

  • Energy Policy: Carter characterized energy conservation as "the moral equivalent of war," but this message, often shortened to "MEOW" by the media, was not well-received.
  • Deregulation: Carter lifted New Deal-era regulations in the airline, trucking, and railroad industries to stimulate competition and reduce prices. While deregulation did lower prices, it also led to business failures and job losses in unionized sectors.
  • Iranian Revolution: The Iranian Revolution further exacerbated the energy crisis by curtailing oil supplies and causing gas prices to spike.

Social and Political Upheaval of the 1970s

The 1970s was a period of significant social and political change, marked by:

  • Exhaustion and Cynicism: Many Americans felt weary and disillusioned due to the Vietnam War, protests, riots, Watergate, and economic recession.
  • Continued Civil Rights Battles: The civil rights movement continued, with a focus on expanding rights for various minority groups and women.
  • Women's and Gay Rights Movements: These movements gained momentum, advocating for equal rights and challenging traditional social norms.
  • Rise of Social Conservatism: Social conservatives formed organizations to resist what they viewed as a permissive society and to promote traditional values.

Affirmative Action

Affirmative action emerged as a strategy to address historical discrimination and promote diversity. Key aspects included:

  • Origins: Initially advanced by the Kennedy administration in 1961 and further developed by Lyndon Johnson's Labor Department, affirmative action aimed to encourage government contractors to recruit underrepresented racial minorities and, later, women.
  • Implementation: Acceptable procedures included hiring and enrollment goals, special recruitment and training programs, and set-asides.
  • Controversies: Affirmative action faced opposition from whites who felt it resulted in "reverse discrimination," leading to legal challenges.
  • Bakke v. University of California (1978): The Supreme Court rejected a strict quota system but allowed race to be considered as one factor in admissions, thus both upholding and calling into question affirmative action.
  • Proposition 209 (California, 1996): This prohibited public institutions from using affirmative action to increase diversity.

The Women's Movement

The women's movement gained significant momentum in the 1970s, marked by:

  • Diverse Activism: The movement encompassed radical, liberal, and "Third World" wings, engaging in activities ranging from lobbying to establishing women's centers and collectives.
  • Focus on Women's Health: Inspired by "Our Bodies, Ourselves," activists founded medical clinics and educated women about their bodies.
  • Antirape Movement: The movement established rape crisis centers and lobbied for the reform of rape laws.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

The ERA aimed to guarantee equal rights regardless of sex. Its history includes:

  • Initial Support: Adopted by Congress in 1972 and quickly ratified by 34 states within two years.
  • Opposition: Phyllis Schlafly and her organization, STOP ERA, successfully mobilized opposition, arguing that the ERA would create an unnatural "unisex society" and undermine traditional family roles.
  • Failure to Ratify: The ERA failed to achieve ratification by the June 30, 1982, deadline.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

  • Background: The Supreme Court had previously addressed reproductive rights in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), which established a right to privacy for married couples regarding contraception.
  • Decision: Roe v. Wade nullified a Texas law prohibiting abortion and established a national standard protecting abortions in the first trimester based on the right to privacy.
  • Controversy: The decision polarized the public, with conservatives viewing abortion as the taking of a human life, while women's advocates emphasized the dangers of illegal abortions.

Gay Rights Movement

The gay rights movement also made strides, though not without controversy:

  • Early Victories: More than a dozen cities passed gay rights ordinances protecting against discrimination.
  • Backlash: Anita Bryant's "Save Our Children" campaign led to the repeal of a gay rights ordinance in Dade County, Florida.
  • Harvey Milk: Harvey Milk became the first openly gay man elected to public office in San Francisco in 1977 but was assassinated in 1978.

The Burger Court

Despite Nixon's appointment of conservative justices, the Burger Court often upheld or expanded liberal precedents:

  • Roe v. Wade: The Court extended the right to privacy to include abortion access.
  • Furman v. Georgia (1972): The Court struck down all existing capital punishment laws.
  • Women's Rights: The Court made rulings that advanced women's rights, including striking down arbitrary sex-based distinctions in the workplace and recognizing sexual harassment as a violation of the Civil Rights Act.
  • Bowers v. Hardwick (1986): The Court upheld a Georgia sodomy statute, criminalizing same-sex sexual acts.

Changing American Family

The American family underwent significant changes during this period:

  • Rising Divorce Rate: The divorce rate doubled between 1965 and 1985.
  • Two-Income Households: More families depended on two incomes due to wage stagnation and inflation.
  • Changing Social Norms: The women's movement and counterculture challenged traditional sex roles and sexual values.

Economic Stagnation

  • Wage Stagnation: Wages stagnated relative to previous decades.
  • Deindustrialization: The decline of manufacturing industries impacted working families.