Advanced Placement United States History: 1865-1945 Comprehensive Study Guide

Agriculture and Westward Expansion ($1865-1898$)

• The Homestead Act ($1862$): This federal law granted $160$ acres of public land in the West to any citizen (or intended citizen) who was the head of a household and at least $21$ years old. To claim full ownership, the individual had to live on the land for $5$ years and make improvements, such as building a dwelling and farming the soil. It was a primary driver for the settlement of the Great Plains but often placed settlers on land that was difficult to farm.

• Transcontinental Railroad: The first of these was completed in $1869$ at Promontory Point, Utah, where the Union Pacific and Central Pacific tracks met. These railroads revolutionized the American economy by connecting the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, facilitating massive migrations, and creating a truly national market for goods. The project was heavily subsidized by the government through land grants and loans.

• Native Americans and the Reservation System: As white settlers moved west, the U.S. government shifted from a policy of a "permanent Indian frontier" to a system of reservations. Native American tribes were forced onto designated, often low-quality land areas controlled by the government. This was intended to clear the way for railroads and farms and ended the traditional nomadic lifestyle of many Plains tribes.

• Boarding Schools and Assimilation: The government and private organizations established schools to forcibly assimilate Native American children into white culture. The most famous was the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania. Students were forbidden from speaking their native languages, forced to cut their hair, and required to adopt Christianity and Western clothing—a policy famously summarized by Richard Henry Pratt as "Kill the Indian, Save the Man."

• "Boom Towns": Rapidly growing settlements that sprung up almost overnight following the discovery of gold, silver, or other valuable minerals. These towns were characterized by a lawless, "Wild West" atmosphere and typically collapsed into "Ghost Towns" once the local mines were exhausted.

• Frederick Jackson Turner and the Closing of the Frontier: In his $1893$ "Frontier Thesis," Turner argued that the existence of an unsettled frontier had shaped the American character, promoting democracy, individualism, and resilience. He responded to the $1890$ census, which declared the American frontier officially "closed," warning that the end of this "safety valve" for social discontent would mark a new and more difficult era for the nation.

• The Dawes Act ($1887$): Formally known as the Dawes General Allotment Act, this law aimed to break up tribal lands and end communal ownership. It redistributed reservation land into individual parcels ($160$ acres to heads of households). The goal was to force Native Americans into sedentary farming and integrate them into white society. Much of the "surplus" land was then sold to white speculators, leading to a massive loss of Native territory.

The Rise of Industry and the Gilded Age ($1865-1898$)

• The Gilded Age: A term coined by Mark Twain to describe the late $19th$ century ($1870-1900$). It suggested that the period was glittering on the surface with great wealth and industrial progress, but underneath sat a "base metal" of corruption, extreme poverty, and social decay.

• Laissez-Faire: An economic philosophy advocating for minimal government interference in the marketplace. Literally meaning "let them do," this doctrine allowed corporations to grow with few regulations regarding labor, environment, or pricing, which facilitated the rise of massive monopolies.

• Monopolies and Horizontal/Vertical Integration:     * Monopolies: A market structure where a single company or "trust" controls all or nearly all of the market for a particular product or service, eliminating competition.     * Vertical Integration: A business strategy where a company controls every stage of production and distribution, from raw materials to the finished product. Andrew Carnegie used this in the steel industry by owning iron mines, coal fields, and railroads.     * Horizontal Integration: A business strategy involving the merger or buyout of competing companies in the same industry. John D. Rockefeller used this to gain control over $90\%$ of the oil refining industry through Standard Oil.

• Capital (Owners) vs. Labor (Workers): This era was defined by the conflict between the "Captains of Industry" (who amassed unprecedented wealth) and the growing industrial labor force (who faced long hours, low pay, and dangerous working conditions). Owners protected their interests through blacklists and private security, while workers began to organize into unions.

• Major Industrial Figures ("Robber Barons"):     * Andrew Carnegie: A Scottish-American industrialist who led the expansion of the American steel industry. He later became a prominent philanthropist, arguing in "The Gospel of Wealth" that the rich had a moral obligation to give back to society.     * John D. Rockefeller: The founder of the Standard Oil Company, he became the world's first billionaire. He was known for ruthless business practices but also for immense charitable giving.     * J.P. Morgan: A powerful investment banker who reorganized railroads and financed the creation of major corporations, including U.S. Steel and General Electric.     * "Robber Barons": A derogatory term for these industrial leaders, suggesting they built their fortunes through exploitation of workers, corruption of government, and unethical business tactics.

• Unions, Unionization, and the Pullman Strike:     * Unions: Organizations like the American Federation of Labor (AFL), led by Samuel Gompers, sought better wages, an $8$-hour workday, and collective bargaining rights.     * The Pullman Strike ($1894$): A nationwide railroad strike that began when the Pullman Palace Car Company cut wages without lowering rents in its company town. The federal government intervened with an injunction, and President Cleveland sent in troops to break the strike, demonstrating the government's pro-business stance.

• Social Darwinism: Based on Herbert Spencer’s application of Charles Darwin's biological theories to society, this belief held that "survival of the fittest" applied to the marketplace. It argued that the wealth of the rich was a sign of their natural superiority and that aiding the poor would only hinder societal progress.

• The $13th$ and $14th$ Amendments:     * $13th$ Amendment ($1865$): Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime.     * $14th$ Amendment ($1868$): Defined citizenship to include formerly enslaved people, guaranteed "equal protection of the laws," and established "due process" at the state level. It remains a cornerstone of civil rights litigation.

The Populist and Progressive Era ($1890-1920$)

• The Grange: Formally the Patrons of Husbandry, this organization was founded to provide social and educational outlets for farmers. It evolved into a political force that lobbied for "Granger Laws" to regulate discriminatory railroad rates.

• Populism: A political movement representing mainly farmers that grew into the People's (Populist) Party. They advocated for the Omaha Platform: the free coinage of silver (bimetallism) to increase the money supply, a graduated income tax, and direct election of senators.

• Urbanization and Tenements: As the U.S. moved toward an industrial economy, millions moved to cities. This rapid growth led to the rise of tenements—cramped, poorly ventilated, and unsanitary apartment buildings where many immigrants and poor workers lived.

• Progressive Muckrakers:     * Jacob Riis: Author of How the Other Half Lives ($1890$), a book of photojournalism that exposed the horrific living conditions in New York City tenements, leading to housing reform.     * Upton Sinclair: Author of The Jungle ($1906$), which aimed to expose the exploitation of workers in the meatpacking industry but instead revolted the public with descriptions of unsanitary food handling. It led to the passage of the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act.

• Plessy v. Ferguson ($1896$): A landmark Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine. This ruling provided the legal justification for Jim Crow laws for the next several decades.

• $19th$ Amendment ($1920$): This amendment finally guaranteed that the right of citizens to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex, granting women the right to vote.

• Theodore Roosevelt: The first of the Progressive presidents, he advocated for a "Square Deal" for all Americans. His policies focused on the "Three Cs": Conservation of natural resources, Control of corporations (trust-busting), and Consumer protection.

Imperialism and World War I ($1890-1919$)

• Imperialism vs. Isolationism: From the late $1800s$, the U.S. debated its role in the world. Imperialists sought overseas territories for resources and markets, while Isolationists argued that foreign entanglement would violate American democratic principles.

• Styles of Diplomacy:     * Big Stick Diplomacy (Roosevelt): Featured the threat of military force to achieve foreign policy goals ("Speak softly and carry a big stick").     * Dollar Diplomacy (Taft): Encouraged U.S. investment in foreign countries, particularly in Latin America and East Asia, to increase American influence.     * Moral Diplomacy (Wilson): The idea that the U.S. should only support countries whose moral and democratic values aligned with those of the U.S.

• Spanish-American War ($1898$): Triggered by the explosion of the USS Maine and yellow journalism, this "splendid little war" ended Spanish rule in the Americas and resulted in the U.S. acquiring Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, establishing the U.S. as a world power.

• US Entry into WWI and U-Boats: While the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand ignited the war in Europe, the U.S. remained neutral until $1917$. The primary cause for entry was Germany's use of Unrestricted Submarine Warfare (U-Boats), which targeted merchant and passenger ships like the Lusitania, as well as the Zimmermann Note.

• Treaty of Versailles ($1919$): The peace treaty that ended WWI. It forced Germany to accept "war guilt" and pay massive reparations. President Wilson proposed his Fourteen Points and the League of Nations, but the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the treaty, returning to a policy of isolationism.

Boom and Bust: The $1920s$ and the Great Depression ($1920-1939$)

• Cultural Conflicts of the $1920s$:     * Rebirth of the KKK: The Ku Klux Klan saw a massive resurgence in the $1920s$, targeting not only African Americans but also immigrants, Catholics, and Jews.     * Red Scare: A period of intense fear of communism and radicalism in the U.S., leading to the Palmer Raids and restricted immigration.     * Flappers: Young women of the $1920s$ who challenged traditional social norms by wearing shorter skirts, bobbed hair, and smoking or drinking in public.

• Radio, Jazz, and the Harlem Renaissance: The $1920s$ saw the rise of mass culture through the radio. The Harlem Renaissance was an explosion of African American artistic and intellectual expression, featuring figures like Langston Hughes and Louis Armstrong, centered in Harlem, New York.

• Causes of the Great Depression: These included overproduction in industry and agriculture, high consumer debt from installment plans, and the stock market crash of $1929$.

• John Maynard Keynes: A British economist who argued that in times of depression, the government should engage in deficit spending to stimulate demand and revive the economy.

• Bonus Army and Hoovervilles: Under President Herbert Hoover, the Depression worsened. "Hoovervilles" were shantytowns built by the homeless. The Bonus Army was a group of WWI veterans who marched on Washington in $1932$ demanding early payment of their service bonuses; they were forcibly removed by the army, ruining Hoover’s reputation.

The New Deal ($1933-1939$)

• The Three R's: Franklin D. Roosevelt’s (FDR) program for ending the Depression focused on:     * Relief: Immediate aid for the unemployed and poor.     * Recovery: Efforts to bring the economy back to normal levels.     * Reform: Long-term changes to the financial system to prevent future depressions.

• New Deal Coalition: An alignment of various interest groups and voting blocs—including labor unions, blue-collar workers, minorities (especially African Americans), and white Southerners—that supported the Democratic Party for decades.

• Social Security Act ($1935$): Created a federal safety net, providing old-age pensions, unemployment insurance, and aid for the disabled and dependent mothers with children.

World War II ($1939-1945$)

• FDR and U.S. Entry: Despite strong isolationist sentiment and the Neutrality Acts, FDR moved the country toward intervention through programs like Lend-Lease. The U.S. formally entered the war after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December $7th, 1941$.

• The Holocaust and the Final Solution: The systematic, state-sponsored genocide of six million Jews and millions of others by the Nazi regime. The "Final Solution" was the Nazi plan to annihilate the Jewish people.

• U.S. Home Front: The war effort required massive mobilization. Rosie the Riveter became an iconic symbol of the millions of women who entered the industrial workforce to replace men serving in the military.

• Korematsu v. U.S. ($1944$): The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the internment of Japanese Americans during the war, ruling that the exclusion order was a "military necessity" rather than based on racial prejudice.

• Military Strategy and Major Battles:     * Island-Hopping: The U.S. strategy in the Pacific of seizing key islands while bypassing others to get within striking distance of Japan.     * Battle of Midway ($1942$): The turning point of the war in the Pacific, where the U.S. Navy decimated the Japanese fleet.     * D-Day (June $6th, 1944$): The massive Allied invasion of Normandy, France, which opened a second front in Europe and led to the liberation of Western Europe.

• The Atomic Bomb: Developed through the Manhattan Project, atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima (August $6th, 1945$) and Nagasaki (August $9th, 1945$), leading to Japan's unconditional surrender and the end of World War II.