Methods of Knowing in Research

Ways of Knowing

  • Fundamental Concepts: Overview of ways of knowing, key to quantitative research methods.

  • Knowledge: Definition varies, characterized as correct answers to questions.

    • Epistemology: Philosophical study of knowledge.

Learning Objectives

  1. Differentiate scientific vs nonscientific ways of knowing.

  2. Assess strengths and weaknesses of these ways.

  3. Importance of research design.

  4. Differentiate between research questions and hypotheses.

  5. Understand the steps of the research process.

Methods for Obtaining Knowledge

  • Method of Intuition: Fast but biased; relies on gut feelings without justification.

  • Method of Authority: Based on expert advice; quick but can be biased by authority figures.

  • Method of Tenacity: Habits persist over time; can be static and biased.

  • Method of Empiricism: Based on observation; dynamic and validates through experience but can be time-consuming.

  • Rational Method: Uses logical arguments; can lead to false conclusions if premises are incorrect. Two types of reasoning:

    • Inductive Reasoning: Specific facts to general conclusions (not always true).

    • Deductive Reasoning: General principles to specific conclusions (always true if premises are accurate).

Scientific Method

  • Combines rationalism and empiricism. Steps include:

    1. Observation of behavior.

    2. Formulate research question or tentative explanation.

    3. Generate a testable hypothesis.

    4. Evaluate predictions with systematic observations.

    5. Analyze observations to evaluate the hypothesis.

    6. Refine and repeat.

  • Three Values of Science:

    • Empirical: Based on real-world observations.

    • Public: Methods and results accessible to others.

    • Unbiased: Results reproducible by others regardless of the researcher.

Pseudoscience

  • Claims to be scientific but lacks empirical support, public access, or unbiased results.

  • Examples include homeopathy and phrenology; relies heavily on anecdotal evidence and resists new evidence.

Research Process Overview

  1. Identify a gap in literature -> Research question -> Hypothesis.

  2. Define variables & ethics -> Enact research strategy.

  3. Conduct study -> Evaluate data -> Share results -> Refine hypothesis and expand.

Importance of Research Design

  • Affects how questions are answered and knowledge is generated.

  • Example: Nutrition studies showed changing answers based on research design choices.