Criminology Theories Notes (Transcript Summary)
Exam logistics and session aim
The exam will cover chapters 1–3 (notably more depth in those chapters; chapter 4 will not be fully covered due to time).
The review sheet is available as a Microsoft Word file and can be converted into vocabulary lists or Quizlets for study.
There will be 60 questions on the exam, including some options like “None of the above.”
The instructor will post a recording of this review session for later access.
The session is designed to finish the criminology content and then transition into exam prep, focusing on theories of crime causation.
Core objective in criminology: the causes of crime
When studying criminology, the central interest is the causes (ideology) of criminal behavior.
The material is organized into schools of thought (broad approaches) with multiple theories within each school.
The goal is to understand why people commit crimes, not just to label them as bad or immoral.
Moral and religious theories of crime
Claim: crime is rooted in concepts of good vs. evil, sinfulness, or holiness of the offender.
Characterization: a primitive way to think about crime that can be morally intuitive but is not very explanatory for causes.
Evaluation: while it may feel descriptively true to some, it does not robustly explain why crime occurs or how to prevent it.
Enlightenment and classical criminology
Historical shift: the Enlightenment advocated rational, scientific explanations for crime, moving away from religious/moral explanations.
Key figure: Jeremy Bentham and classical criminology.
Core idea: rational egoism — people are motivated by self-interest and the pursuit of pleasure, while avoiding pain.
Criminals are seen as rational actors, not inherently immoral.
Deterrence theory: punishments should be designed to deter rational actors by making crime not worth the cost.
Principle: crime results from a cost–benefit calculation; if the punishment outweighs the perceived benefit, crime will decrease.
Psychological theories of crime (individual-focused)
Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic approach: crime results from unconscious desires or internal conflicts that are not easily expressed in socially acceptable ways.
Behavioral theory: crime is learned through rewards and punishments in the environment; behavior is shaped by external contingencies rather than inner drives.
Behavioral emphasis: criminal behavior can be increased or decreased based on rewards/punishments.
Differential association theory (a social/psychological learning theory): crime is learned from others, especially within intimate groups.
Key claims: individuals learn criminal techniques, motivations, and the perceived justification for crime from those close to them.
Not just media influence; intimate groups play a crucial role in socialization into crime.
Examples discussed: media influence (gangster rap, films) and the way families or peer groups teach one to justify criminal behavior.
Distinction: learning occurs within intimate circles, not only through general exposure to crime in society.
Practical illustration from the lecture:
Goodfellas is used as an example of how criminals are socialized to view themselves and their targets, and how criminals are taught to justify their actions.
The process includes learning to see the rules as for losers and to adopt a criminal identity through socialization.
Summary: psychological theories focus on the individual’s development, socialization, and learned attitudes toward crime.
Biological and biosocial theories of crime
Early biological theories (now discredited):
Phrenology: claims about criminal propensity based on skull shape and bumps.
Atavism theory: criminals are less evolved or more primitive; born criminals due to evolutionary lag.
Both theories are scientifically unfounded and have racist implications.
Modern biological perspectives (biosocial):
Sociobiology: crime explained via evolutionary biology; behavior is shaped by inherited traits advantageous for survival.
A common claim: biological traits (e.g., testosterone levels) influence aggression or propensity for risk, which can relate to criminal behavior in certain contexts.
Neurocriminology: crime related to brain function (e.g., impulse control, neural responses) and genetics.
Important cautions: these approaches have historically associated criminality with racialized or ethnic groups and carry racist implications; contemporary work emphasizes avoiding biological determinism and considering complex interactions with environment.
Overall takeaway: biology can interact with environment to influence behavior, but simplistic or racist interpretations are scientifically flawed and ethically problematic.
The Chicago School and social disorganization theory
Origin and context: early 20th century, University of Chicago; focus on urban dynamics and immigration patterns in American cities (e.g., Chicago).
Historical observation: waves of European immigrants (Irish, German, Italian, Jewish, etc.) settled in urban neighborhoods and initially showed high crime rates.
Core idea: crime is not intrinsic to immigrant groups but is a product of neighborhood social dynamics and disorganization.
Neighborhoods and the spatial model:
The city is described in rings or zones: downtown/loop, surrounding neighborhoods, and suburbs.
The “zone in transition” (between the loop and suburbs) experiences the most social disorganization, contributing to higher crime rates.
Process of assimilation and mobility:
Immigrant families may have high crime exposure in the initial neighborhood, but as children grow up and move to other areas, they often assimilate and become more law-abiding.
This pattern occurs across different immigrant groups (Irish, Italians, Jews, etc.).
Mechanism: social disorganization theory explains crime as a product of weak social institutions and norms, lack of informal social control, and limited collective efficacy in neighborhoods.
Micro vs macro explanations:
Micro: questions about why a specific individual commits crime focus on family, peers, and immediate social context.
Macro: big-picture explanations look at social structures, neighborhoods, and policies that influence crime at a community or city level.
Policy implications (macro focus):
Interventions should strengthen community institutions, improve supervision and activities for youth, and address structural factors to reduce crime across neighborhoods.
Examples discussed: after-school programs, organized sports leagues, and other community investments that provide supervision and prosocial activities.
Examples and illustrations used in the lecture:
The Godfather opening scene is used to illustrate cultural differences in seeking justice and the role of institutions when they fail; individuals may turn to alternative systems (e.g., mafia) when formal institutions are ineffective.
Language barriers, parental work patterns, and intergenerational dynamics are cited as factors that can influence socialization and crime risk in immigrant families.
Macro explanations are especially valued for policy because they address broad groups and systems rather than focusing solely on individuals.
Micro vs macro explanations and policy relevance
Micro explanations: focus on a single individual (e.g., John) and explain crime through that person’s family, peers, personality, or experiences.
Macro explanations: focus on groups or societal structures (e.g., neighborhoods, social institutions) and explain crime through broader social forces.
Utility of macro explanations: better for informing public policy because they identify levers that can reduce crime across populations (not just for one person).
Examples of macro interventions: improving neighborhood social cohesion, enhancing supervision, facilitating access to after-school activities, building community programs, and strengthening schools and protective institutions.
Motivations for studying and their real-world relevance
Student motivation discussion (engaging but reflective):
Common motivations for attending college include money (economic benefits) and status (social status).
Education offers experience and social capital that shape opportunities and life trajectories.
Implications for crime theory: broader social structure and opportunity influence crime rates; access to education and social mobility can shape crime propensities at the population level.
Preview: the instructor teases that the next session will continue discussing crime, likely tying these motivational factors to crime dynamics and policy.
Key takeaways and critical reflections
Theories of crime range from moralistic to rational-choice to psychological to biological to sociological; each offers different insights and limitations.
A major critique of early biological theories is their racist implications and lack of scientific support.
The Chicago School’s social disorganization theory emphasizes neighborhood context and social control mechanisms as central to understanding crime patterns.
Macro-level approaches are particularly important for informing public policy because they address systemic factors that shape crime across populations, rather than focusing solely on individual pathology.
It is essential to recognize the historical biases and ethical implications of criminological theories, particularly those that linked criminality to race or biology; contemporary criminology seeks to avoid deterministic or discriminatory conclusions and focus on social processes and structures.
Helpful reminders for the exam
Be prepared to distinguish between micro (individual-level) and macro (societal-level) explanations and to discuss their policy implications.
Expect questions that compare and contrast different schools of thought (moral/religious, Enlightenment/classical, psychological, biological, sociobiological, Chicago School).
Be ready to explain how real-world examples (e.g., immigrant neighborhoods, after-school programs) illustrate macro theories like social disorganization.
Remember key terms: deterrence, rational choice, differential association, social disorganization, macro vs micro explanations, assimilation, collective efficacy, informal social control.
Quick glossary of terms (for review)
Deterrence: using punishment to discourage criminal behavior by making the costs clear and outweighing perceived benefits.
Rational egoism: assumption that individuals act to maximize their own utility, even when committing crime.
Differential association theory: crime learned through close social contact; emphasizes learning of techniques and attitudes in intimate groups.
Social disorganization theory: crime results from breakdown of social institutions and lack of informal social control in neighborhoods.
Assimilation: process by which immigrants and their descendants adopt the norms and behaviors of the host society; gradual improvement in conformity and reduced crime risk over generations.
Biosocial theory: crime results from interactions between biology and environment; caution against simplistic biological determinism.
Neurocriminology: study of how brain function and genetics relate to criminal behavior, including impulse control and decision-making.
Macro vs micro explanations: micro explains individual behavior; macro explains group or societal-level processes and policy implications.
After-school/sports-league interventions: example of macro-level policy aimed at reducing crime through structured, supervised activities.