Topic 9
American History Overview
Colonial Society
Colonization and Native Americans
By the time the first white men arrived in North America, various cultures and tribes existed, which can be divided into ten main groups:
Southwest:
Region: Present-day New Mexico and Arizona.
Society: Classless, primarily agricultural, notable culture is Pueblo.
Neighbors: Navajo and Apache tribes.
Intermediate Cultural Area:
Region: Present-day California.
Society: Tribes engaged in hunting and gathering, speaking hundreds of languages.
Northwest Coast:
Region: Present-day British Columbia.
Society: Tribes reliant on the sea for sustenance.
Arctic Coast
Subarctic
Plateau:
Region: Present Valley of Columbia River.
Society: Hunting and fishing, includes the Perce, Spokane, and Yakima tribes.
Great Basin:
Society: Utilized local resources.
Plains:
Society: Buffalo hunting, tribes include Cheyenne, Sioux, and Arapaho.
Northeast:
Tribes: Powhatan, Iroquois, and Miami.
Society: Engaged in farming, hunting, and fishing.
Southeast:
Region: Present-day southeastern Mississippi Valley.
Society: Matriarchal, clans based on maternal descent; primarily hunters and traders.
Kinship networks were central to Native American societies, encompassing all relatives through marriage.
Early Voyages and Discoveries
European Exploration:
Portugal began exploiting new opportunities in the early 1450s.
Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope).
Vasco da Gama reached India; in 1500, Portuguese sailors landed in present-day Brazil.
Christopher Columbus:
In 1492, under Spanish sponsorship, attempted to reach Asia but landed in the Bahamas (San Salvador).
Misnamed natives as “Indians” due to his misconception of geography.
Undertook four voyages, realizing by 1498 that he had not reached India.
Amerigo Vespucci:
The name "America" derives from Amerigo Vespucci, who documented his voyages.
Ferdinand Magellan:
Proved the world is round during his expedition from 1519 to 1522, which reached the Philippines.
Conquistadors:
Fernando Cortez conquered the Aztec Empire in the late 1510s.
Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire in the 1530s.
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494):
Divided the New World between Spain and Portugal vertically along a meridian.
Cultural Exchange
Europen-Native Interaction:
Introduction of new crops (e.g., potatoes, beans, corn, pumpkins, and tomatoes) effecting agricultural revolution.
European domesticated animals (pigs, sheep, goats, cattle, horses) greatly influenced Native lifestyles.
Missionaries spread Catholicism, often merging it with indigenous practices.
Unfortunately, European diseases (like smallpox) led to significant Native population decline, prompting labor shortages.
Early New England Settlements
Push Factors for Colonization:
Growth in world trade, displacing many farmers from land.
Declining food supplies.
Mercantilism: the drive for economic dominance required finding new overseas markets.
Religious dissatisfaction post-Henry VIII's Church of England reforms; Puritans sought purification of the church.
Scarcity of population in North America created land opportunities.
French Settlements:
First French settlement was Quebec established in 1608, primarily inspired by fur traders.
English Settlements:
Pilgrims arrived in 1620 on the Mayflower, signing the Mayflower Compact that provided for civil governance.
The first settlement was Plymouth.
Southern Settlements: Virginia and Maryland
Jamestown (1607):
The first permanent English colony; founded by the London Company after an initial failed attempt in 1587.
Early struggles included food scarcity, harsh winters, and conflicts with Native Americans.
Tobacco cultivation eventually became the economic foundation after initial survival struggles.
Maryland:
Established as a Roman Catholic safe haven; quickly saw an influx of Protestants leading to religious tensions eased by granting religious freedom.
British and the North American Colonies (Mid-17th Century to Mid-18th Century)
Economic Benefits Realized:
England realized colonies provided essential raw materials (tobacco, timber, furs) for British merchants.
Navigation Acts (1654):
Regulations stated colonies could only sell goods to England, highlighting mercantilism.
Increasing Control:
Under King James II, control tightened, but backlash led to rollbacks of such restrictions.
Colonial Commerce:
Triangular trade established between New England, Africa, and the West Indies.
New England exported artifacts to the West Indies for sugar to produce rum; rum and firearms fetched slaves from West Africa.
Colonial Society - The Puritan Community
Covenant Societies:
Residents in New England formed covenants to maintain community integrity; town meetings allowed adult male church members to make decisions.
Selectmen chosen to lead local affairs; strict authority structures existed within families and communities.
Evolution of Family Dynamics:
As land ownership shifted, population increases led to new settlements and social strife; patriarchal control diminished over time.
Blacks in Colonial North America
a) New England
Slave Trade:
Slow growth of black population; slaves faced less severe conditions compared to other regions.
b) The Middle Colonies
Plantation System:
Development of plantations by the mid-1600s; first anti-slavery protests emerged among Quakers in 1688.
c) The South
Initial Conditions:
First Africans arrived in Virginia; initially as servants, slavery recognized officially in 1661.
Economic factors promoted slavery expansion due to favorable crop climates (tobacco, sugar) leading to extensive plantations.
Position of Women in Colonial Society
Migration and Roles:
Women migrated largely with families; the male to female ratio was historically 3:1.
Women's roles included managing households, with some aiding family businesses in towns.
Limited Education:
Formal education was scarce; however, some girls learned to read in New England.
Life and Mortality:
High childbirth rates coexisted with high infant mortality (40-50% died before 20).
Late 17th century saw an increased number of single women participating economically.
Native American Relations
European Pressures:
By the end of the 17th century, tribes navigated alliances amidst Spanish, French, and British competition.
Examples include Creeks aligning with the British and the Cherokees pledging loyalty to King George.
Revolutionary War and Independence
Causes of the Revolutionary War (1775-83):
Building tensions predated the war stemming from British taxation efforts post-French and Indian War.
Notable acts included:
Stamp Act (1765)
Townshend Tariffs (1767)
Tea Act (1773)
Colonial responses escalated, exemplified by the Boston Massacre (1770) and the Boston Tea Party (December 1773).
Declaration of Independence
First Continental Congress:
In 1774, colonial leaders gathered to articulate grievances, rejecting taxation without representation.
Contained assertions of rights to life, liberty, and property.
Second Continental Congress:
Convened when violence erupted (Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775).
Established the Continental Army with George Washington as commander.
Major Battles and Turning Points
Battle of Bunker Hill:
June 1775, although a British victory, it bolstered colonial morale.
Saratoga (1777):
Turning point that encouraged France to support the colonial cause openly, thus broadening the conflict internationally.
Valley Forge:
Troops gained essential training under European military leaders; harsh conditions tested resolve.
Conclusion of the War and New Nation
Surrender and Treaty of Paris
Yorktown (1781):
Cornwallis's surrender marked a turning point, leading to eventual peace negotiations in Paris.
Treaty of Paris (1783):
Great Britain formally recognized U.S. independence and territorial claims from the Atlantic to the Mississippi.
Building a New Nation
Articles of Confederation:
The first constitution established a weak federal government unable to levy taxes or regulate interstate commerce.
The 1787 Constitutional Convention led to a new Constitution balancing federal and state powers.
Ratification Controversy:
Required nine states' ratification; Federalists supported while Anti-Federalists feared a strong central government.
The Bill of Rights introduced to address individual rights concerns.
The Civil War Foundations
Economic and Social Divides
Increasing tensions arose due to differences in economy between North (industrial) and South (agrarian, reliant on slavery).
State's Rights:
Debate over the balance of power between state and federal authorities fueled sectional tensions.
Outbreak of the Civil War (1861)
Fort Sumter:
First shots fired April 12, 1861, triggering the Civil War.
Union vs. Confederacy:
Union advantages included population and industrial capacity; Confederate strengths lay in military leadership and cause.
Key Events and Emancipation
Emancipation Proclamation (1863):
Declared freedom for slaves in rebellious territories, intended as a wartime measure.
Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863):
Major Union victory that shifted the war's momentum.
Conclusion of the War
Appomattox Court House (1865):
Lee’s surrender to Grant; Lincoln’s assassination altered post-war reconstruction dynamics.
Reconstruction Era:
Despite emancipation, true equality remained unfulfilled, leading to ongoing racial tensions and the emergence of groups like the Ku Klux Klan.