HUMBEHV 2AP3 - Reading
Science of Reading
Nature of Reading
Reading can be conceptualized in two different cognitive processing models:
Bottom-Up: Reading is driven by the perceptual decoding of written symbols, wherein the eye sees letters, which are processed by the brain to form words without any pre-existing knowledge influencing the perception.
Top-Down: Higher cognitive processes guide reading through existing knowledge, experience, or context, directing the eyes towards specific words.
Example Discussion
To illustrate this concept, consider the word "ice cream." One can question if understanding the term solely relies on the visual recognition of letters sending signals to the visual cortex or if the frontal cortex, which is involved in higher-order cognitive functions, guides the visual recognition specifically towards the word "ice cream."
Models of Reading Processing
One prominent model proposed by Patterson & Shewel (1987), as cited in Coltheart et al. (2001), illustrates the mechanisms involved in reading and speech, categorized into bottom-up and top-down processes. The model includes:
Bottom-Up Processes: These involve sensory input from visual features to phonological analysis.
Input Stages
Visual Perception: The initial stage where visual signals are captured and interpreted, allowing for the recognition of letters and words.
Phonological Processing: The transition from visual inputs to phonological representations, enabling proper sound articulation of the written text.
Orthographic Analysis: Transforming visual print into a representation.
Acoustic Analysis: Transforming auditory input into a phonological representation.
The intricate process follows a series of conversions, leading to a phonological response.
Top-Down Processes: These capitalize on cognitive knowledge to produce speech or read words.
Semantic systems interact with phonological responses to produce contextual output.
Grapheme-Phoneme Rules
A significant focus in the model proposed by Patterson & Shewel (1987) is understanding the grapheme-phoneme rule system. This system outlines:
The interaction between orthographic input and phonological output, where both cognitive and semantic systems aid in guiding phonological output.
Processing of Words
Learned Words vs. Novel Words: Research indicates that the number of letters in a word does not impact reading time, suggesting that familiarized words are recognized holistically as complete forms instead of through individual phonemes.
When reading pseudohomophones (PSHs), which are nonwords that sound like real words, versus controls (nonwords that don’t resemble real words), results suggest that naming latency is affected by the familiarity of the word.
Observational Implications
While the current model does a good job describing reading behavior, it is emphasized that this does not equate to a definitive proof of how reading works. There are alternative models that could explain the behavior observed. The analogy of swimming suggests that acknowledging various models allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the construct being studied.
Learning to Read: Phonological Awareness
Phonological Awareness: This is identified as the primary predictor of reading success. It includes understanding the sounds in spoken language, which significantly supports letter knowledge and phoneme acquisition.
A study highlighted that majorities of 3-year-olds and all 4 & 5-year-olds can identify the first letters of their names, showcasing exposure, familiarity, and relevance in action.
Letter and Sound Study
Research Findings by Treiman (2013): Kindergarteners tested on their sound knowledge before versus after formal instruction exhibited increased accuracy post-instruction.
For example, for the letter 'W': 20% correct before instruction rose to 53% after. Similarly, for 'Y': accuracy moved from 13% to 18% after.
An emphasis is suggested on focusing on more challenging letters over time, rather than a one-letter-per-week approach.
Spelling Development in Young Children
Young children often exhibit spelling errors that illustrate their phonological awareness combined with their understanding of letters. Examples include:
Errors:
“frm” for farm (incorrectly using 'r' as it sounds like 'a')
“hlp” for help (using 'l' for 'e').
Such errors indicate reliance on letters, phonological awareness, and recognition of printed words.
Eye Movements in Reading
Saccades and Fixations:
Saccades: Rapid eye movements during reading.
Fixations: Momentary pauses lasting about 200-250 milliseconds where encoding takes place, typically covering a span of 7-9 letters.
Regressions: Backward eye movements that account for 10-15% of a skilled reader's time as they re-scan text often indicating comprehension checks.
Reading Development Over Grades
In grade 1, fixations were longer (averaging over 350 ms) with three fixations per word and 30% regressions. By grades 4-5, eye movement patterns became stable while reading age-appropriate texts, indicating developmental advancements in reading skill.
Impact of Text Difficulty on Reading
In a study with 16 university participants reading passages rated on a scale from easy (2.8/10) to difficult (6.6/10), the results indicated that more challenging text passages correlated with longer fixation durations and increased total reading time.
Anaphora and Eye Movements
Two examples involving anaphora illustrate cognitive processes in reading. For instance, the statement by Alison, who ordered celery sticks, shows variations in comprehension depending on anaphor consistency. In cases where the anaphor does not align with the antecedent, cognitive processes take longer, impacting eye movement efficiency due to inconsistency and coherence in the text.
Experiments recording eye movements showed longer gaze durations and increased regressions for inconsistent pairs. This demonstrates that cognitive understanding (i.e., does the sentence make sense) impacts visual processing.
The Cognitive Nature of Reading
Overall, the evidence suggests that reading is a cognitive process, wherein efficiency and ease are influenced by the integrity of the first few letters in the words. In scenarios where the first three letters are missed, comprehension deteriorates significantly more than if the last three letters are overlooked.
Ongoing Eye Movement Control
In research featuring eye-tracking while participants read sentences, conditions varied where the target word either stayed in place or moved. When words did not align with expected positions, readers exhibited longer fixations and increasing re-fixation behavior. These dynamics highlight that reading necessitates continuous cognitive processing even within a single word, contradicting the common perception of reading as merely a visual skill.
Iterative Reading Process
Ultimately, reading emerges as a continuous iterative process wherein readers constantly compare visual input with pre-existing knowledge, ensuring phonological outputs align with anticipated inputs based on context and previous experiences.