S + S Text, Chapter 2

Building Theories and Hypotheses

Introduction

• Theories are essential for guiding research in social sciences.

• This chapter covers:

  • Importance of theories in research.

  • Difference between descriptive and explanatory research.

  • The roles of induction and deduction.

  • Characteristics of useful theories.

  • Distinction between covariation and causation.

  • How to state a hypothesis.

  • Elaborating theories using hypotheses.

Informal Theories

• Informal theories can be developed through personal experiences (e.g., predicting exam questions based on observed patterns).

• The chapter aims to refine these intuitive skills into formal explanatory theories for academic research.

Descriptive vs. Explanatory Research

• Descriptive Research focuses on gathering facts and information to clarify what is known about a phenomenon.

• Explanatory Research seeks to understand why phenomena occur, thus moving beyond mere description.

• Importance of systematic research in obtaining valid measurements of reality.

Purpose of Theory

• Theories provide explanations for observed phenomena and help to construct specific research questions.

• Example scenario: Evaluating how income affects attitudes toward environmental protection policies and the role of employment sectors in shaping those attitudes.

Nature of Theory in Social Science

• Theories are intellectual tools, useful for simplifying reality to understand and predict events.

• Theories offer logical bases for expectations that can be tested through research.

• Theories cannot merely be discovered; they require effort and imagination to develop.

Logic of Theory Building

• First step involves conceptualizing the problem to understand what is known and requires further investigation.

• Inductive reasoning involves generalizing observations to form broader conclusions.

• Example: Understanding the riots in 1960s U.S. cities by studying motivations beyond initial perceptions of societal instability.

Induction and Deduction

• Induction: Drawing general principles from specific observations.

  • Example: Observing multiple occurrences where pressing a button opens elevator doors, leading to the conclusion that this action causes the effect.

• Deduction: Using general principles to make specific predictions.

  • Example: If all Republicans are conservative, then individuals within that group should also be conservative.

Characteristics of Useful Theories

• Testable: Enables predictions about reality that can be measured with specific observations.

• Logically Sound: The theory should be internally consistent with compatible assumptions.

• Communicable: Others must be able to understand and apply the theory effectively.

• General: Purpose is to explain a variety of events across different contexts.

• Parsimonious: Simplicity is key; the theory should not be overly complex

Components of Social Science Theory

• Concepts: Basic building blocks of theories, serving as symbols for ideas or phenomena.

• Concepts must have:

  • Empirical Referents: Observable phenomena to which they refer.

  • Precision: Clear definition of what is being referenced.

  • Theoretical Import: Importance in linking to other concepts within the theory.

Relationships in Theory

• Covariation: Two or more concepts change together, but this doesn’t imply causation.

• Causation: Changes in one concept directly lead to changes in another.

  • Importance of recognizing complex causal relationships; often more than one cause affects phenomena.

Testing and Elaborating Theories

• Process of theory development includes deriving hypotheses that guide empirical research.

• Theories evolve based on evidence and require continual testing against real-world observations.

• Hypotheses: Declarative statements predicting relationships between variables, ideally framed as directional relationships.

Variables in Research

• Independent Variables: Factors that influence outcomes by changing their values.

• Dependent Variables: Outcomes influenced by the independent variables.

• Intervening Variables: Mediate the relationship between independent and dependent variables.

• Antecedent Variables: Precede the independent variable in a causal chain, impacting its effects.

Alternative Rival Hypotheses

• Testing alternative hypotheses is crucial to validating theoretical claims.

• Rivals provide contrasting understandings of the same event, and both cannot be correct simultaneously.

• Example: Evaluating the relationship between economic conditions and social phenomena by controlling for external factors.

Conclusion

• Theories demonstrate usefulness through supporting evidence for derived hypotheses.

• Continuous revision and testing ensure theories remain valid.

• The research process demands creativity and empirical rigor for effective theory building.