Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, chaps. 3, 6, 13, 14, 15

Chapter 3 – Of the Consequence or Train of Imaginations

1. Nature of Thought

  • Thinking = a sequence (train) of thoughts where one idea leads to another.

  • This sequence is shaped by past sensory experience.

  • No thought is random in origin—it follows prior impressions.

2. Types of Thought Trains

A. Unguided (Random)

  • No clear goal or direction.

  • Example: daydreaming, free association.

  • Appears chaotic but still follows subconscious connections.

B. Regulated (Directed)

  • Guided by a desire or purpose.

  • Two main forms:

    • Seeking causes from effects (reasoning backward)

    • Planning actions to achieve goals

3. Practical Reasoning

  • Reasoning = calculation (like addition/subtraction of consequences).

  • Humans think in terms of:

    • “If this, then that”

    • Means → ends relationships

4. Key Implications

  • Rationality is instrumental, not moral.

  • Thinking is mechanical, not spiritual or divine.

Chapter 6 – Of the Interior Beginnings of Voluntary Motions (Passions)

1. Basic Psychological Forces

  • Appetite (desire) → movement toward something

  • Aversion → movement away from something

2. Definitions of Good and Evil

  • “Good” = what an individual desires

  • “Evil” = what an individual avoids

  • Therefore:

    • No objective good/evil

    • Values are subjective and relative

3. The Will

  • The will = the strongest desire at the moment of decision.

  • No “free will” in a modern sense—choices are determined by competing desires.

4. Types of Passions

  • Love, hate, hope, fear, joy, grief, etc.

  • All reduce to appetite/aversion dynamics.

5. Happiness

  • Not a stable condition.

  • Defined as:

    • Continuous success in obtaining what one desires.

  • Humans are never satisfied permanently.

6. Power

  • Humans constantly seek power after power:

    • Power = means to secure future desires.

  • This endless striving drives conflict.

Chapter 13 – Of the Natural Condition of Mankind (State of Nature)

1. Equality of Humans

  • Humans are roughly equal in:

    • Physical ability

    • Mental capacity

  • Even the weak can kill the strong (e.g., by strategy or alliances).

2. Causes of Conflict

Three main drivers:

  1. Competition → gain (resources)

  2. Diffidence (fear) → safety (self-defense)

  3. Glory → reputation (honor, status)

3. State of Nature

  • No:

    • Government

    • Laws

    • Justice or injustice

  • Result = state of war:

    • Not constant fighting, but constant readiness for violence.

4. Life in the State of Nature

  • Famous description:

    • “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”

  • No:

    • Industry

    • Agriculture

    • Trade

    • Arts or culture

  • Why? No security → no long-term investment.

5. Natural Right

  • Everyone has a right to everything, even others’ bodies.

  • This unlimited freedom creates insecurity.

6. Key Insight

  • Humans are not naturally cooperative.

  • Fear and self-interest dominate without authority.

Chapter 14 – Of the First and Second Natural Laws

1. Natural Right vs. Natural Law

  • Natural Right:

    • Freedom to do anything necessary for survival.

  • Natural Law:

    • Rational rule that promotes survival.

2. First Natural Law

  • Seek peace when possible.

  • If peace is impossible → use all means of war.

3. Second Natural Law

  • Be willing to give up some rights if others do the same.

  • This creates mutual limitation.

4. Contracts

  • Agreements arise when rights are transferred.

  • Two key forms:

    • Renouncing rights

    • Transferring rights to others

5. The Role of Trust

  • Agreements are fragile without enforcement.

  • Fear of betrayal prevents cooperation.

6. Key Insight

  • Peace requires reciprocity and mutual restraint.

Chapter 15 – Of Other Laws of Nature

1. Justice and Contracts

  • Justice = keeping valid covenants.

  • Injustice = breaking them.

Important:

  • No justice exists before contracts.

  • In the state of nature, nothing is unjust.

2. Problem of Enforcement

  • Agreements fail without a common power to enforce them.

  • Fear of cheating makes cooperation irrational.

3. Additional Natural Laws

Hobbes lists several rules necessary for peace:

A. Equity (Fairness)

  • Treat others as equals.

B. Gratitude

  • Repay benefits received.

C. Accommodation

  • Be willing to compromise.

D. Pardon (Forgiveness)

  • Forgive past offenses when safe.

E. No Arrogance

  • Avoid unnecessary displays of superiority.

4. Moral Philosophy

  • These laws are:

    • Rational

    • Necessary for peace

  • But:

    • They are ineffective without enforcement.

5. Key Insight

  • Morality depends on security and authority, not inherent virtue.

Overall Synthesis

1. Human Nature

  • Driven by:

    • Desire

    • Fear

    • Power-seeking

  • Not naturally moral or cooperative.

2. Problem

  • State of nature = insecurity + conflict.

3. Solution

  • Rational individuals:

    • Agree to contracts

    • Limit their freedoms

4. Limitation

  • Contracts alone are not enough.

5. Conclusion

  • A sovereign authority is necessary to:

    • Enforce agreements

    • Maintain peace

    • Prevent collapse into war