2--Capturing and Using Energy
Chemical Reactions in Systems
A system is the object being studied (e.g., a cell, a body, an ecosystem).
In biology, systems are always open systems.
Trao đổi cả matter và energy với môi trường
Rules About Energy in Reacting Systems (Laws of Thermodynamics)
1st Law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of Energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Energy can be transferred from one object or location to another.
Energy can be transformed from one type to another.

2nd Law of Thermodynamics: The Total Disorder of a Reacting System Increases
the entropy of the system increases.
Entropy refers to disorder or randomness.
If parts of a reacting system become more ordered (e.g., forming a bigger, more complex molecule), somewhere else in the system—> tổng entropy tăng
These factors relate to:
Enthalpy (): The total heat content of a system at constant pressure.
Temperature (): A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles within the system.
Entropy (): A measure of the disorder—độ hỗn loạn— or randomness of a system.
Spontaneous vs. Non-Spontaneous Reactions


Terminology
Spontaneous Reactions = Exergonic Reactions
Release free energy
Non-Spontaneous Reactions = Endergonic Reactions
Require an input of free energy

ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate
Reasons for spontaneity and energy release:
ATP hydrolysis (ATP → ADP + Pi):
Exergonic, spontaneous (ΔG < 0).
Vì:
Phosphate mang điện âm → đẩy nhau, làm ATP kém bền.
ADP bền hơn ATP.
Phân tách ATP → 2 phân tử (entropy ↑).
Reaction Coupling
Cách tế bào “xài” ATP: ghép 1 phản ứng exergonic (ATP hydrolysis) với 1 phản ứng endergonic.
Giúp endergonic → cả reaction sẽ spontaneous.
Vì ATP tiêu tốn nhiều, tế bào phải liên tục tái tạo ATP.

Enzymes and Reaction Rates
Even if a reaction is spontaneous (exergonic), it does not mean it will occur quickly.
What Enzymes/Catalysts Do
Spontaneous ≠ nhanh → vẫn cần enzyme.
Enzyme = biological catalyst → giảm activation energy (EA).
Ổn định transition state.
Giúp phản ứng diễn ra nhanh hơn.
Heat cũng tăng tốc độ nhưng dễ gây hại.
Enzymes không làm gì:
Không cung cấp free energy.
Không biến endergonic thành exergonic (cần coupling).
Không thay đổi ΔG (chỉ thay tốc độ).
Không bị tiêu thụ, có thể tái sử dụng.
Enzyme chịu ảnh hưởng bởi: nhiệt độ, pH, chất đồng yếu tố (cofactors).
Enzyme Structure and Function
Enzymes are proteins, which are polymers of amino acids.
The specific primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structure of an enzyme is directly related to its catalytic job.
Enzyme reaction pathway:

Types of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
Catabolic Reaction: The enzyme breaks down a larger substrate molecule into smaller products. ( lớn —> nhỏ )
Anabolic Reaction: The enzyme synthesizes a larger product molecule from smaller substrates. ( nhỏ—> lớn )

Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity: Inhibitors
A. Competitive Inhibition

Chất ức chế cạnh tranh với cơ chất tại active site.
Kinetics:
Km ↑ (cần nhiều substrate hơn để đạt 1/2 Vmax).
Vmax không đổi (substrate dư nhiều sẽ thắng chất ức chế).

Chất ức chế gắn chỗ khác (allosteric site) → làm enzyme kém hiệu quả.
Kinetics:
Vmax ↓ (giảm tốc độ tối đa, do số enzyme chức năng giảm).
Km không đổi (affinity không đổi).