Study Notes on "Many Seasons Ago": Slavery and Its Rejection among Foragers on the Pacific Coast of North America

ABSTRACT

• Anthropologists have traditionally classified foragers on the Pacific coast of North America into two major culture areas:

  • "California"

  • "Northwest Coast"

• Characteristics of Northern California Foragers:

  • Exhibit elements of Weber’s "Protestant ethic".

  • Moral injunction for community leaders to:

    • Work hard

    • Seek spiritual purpose through introspection

    • Pursue monetary wealth while avoiding material excess.

• Characteristics of Northwest Coast Foragers:

  • Social organization resembles courtly estates in medieval Europe:

  • A leisured class of nobles achieves status through:

    • Hereditary ranking

    • Competitive banquets

    • Dazzling aesthetic displays

    • Retention of household slaves captured in war.

• Despite coexistence of these opposing value systems, little interest has been shown by anthropologists, historians, or archaeologists.

• Implications of these findings cast doubt on:

  • Key orthodoxies regarding:

  • Culture areas

  • Modes of subsistence

  • Political evolution

• Argue that the political creativity of foraging peoples has been severely underrated.

INTRODUCTION

• Distinctions in social organization and ethics between Californian and Northwest Coast societies are historically significant.

• Both regions were populated mainly by foragers before European contact.

Population and Subsistence Strategies

• Northwest Coast foragers:

  • Relied heavily on harvesting anadromous fish (e.g., salmon, eulachon).

  • Consumed marine mammals, terrestrial plants, and game resources.

  • Divided yearly activities between:

  • Winter villages for ceremonies.

  • Smaller social units focused on food provision in spring/summer.

• Californian foragers:

  • Occupied one of the world’s most diverse habitats.

  • Utilized a variety of terrestrial resources through:

  • Burning, clearing, and pruning.

  • Practiced fishing and hunting, with reliance on:

  • Tree crops (nuts, acorns) as staple foods.

Key Differences

• Northwest Coast practiced:

  • Intergroup raiding and chattel slavery.

• Aboriginal Californians avoided such practices.

CULTURAL ANALYSIS

Historical Perspectives

• Comparison of mid-twentieth-century essays:

  • Walter Goldschmidt (1951) on California vs. Claude Levi-Strauss (1975) on Northwest Coast.

Goldschmidt's Argument

• Foragers in Northern California exhibited:

  • Characteristics akin to the "Protestant ethic" of capitalism:

  • Individual acquisition of wealth and personal responsibility.

  • Private property laws and the use of shell currency.

  • Social structures demanding self-denial and hard work.

Levi-Strauss' Argument

• Highlights nobility in Northwest Coast societies:

  • Social structure with:

  • Hereditary ranks and commoners providing labor.

  • Competitive banqueting (potlatch) as cultural institution.

• These interpretations question:

  • The nature of cultural frontiers between these societies.

  • The existence of normative classifications that lump them into single typological categories.

Schizmogenesis Concept

• Definition: The self-conscious differentiation of cultural norms arising from cumulative interactions, leading to contrasts and divisions.

• Schizmogenesis presents:

  • Cultural evolution of societies through dialogue about values,

  • Internal contradictions resulting in differences from neighboring cultures.

  • Both positive (cultural integration) and negative (cultural refusal).

ETHNOGRAPHIC SOURCES AND EVIDENCE

• Reliance on a combination of:

  • Ethnographic evidence,

  • Oral history,

  • Archaeological findings to illustrate arguments.

Modes of Production

• Differentiate subsistence not just by material outcomes but by producing specific kinds of status relationships:

  • E.g., nobles, commoners, slaves.

• Explore this with examples from California and Northwest Coast, focusing on slavery's role.

SLAVERY IN ABORIGINAL SOCIETIES

The Case of Theft and Labor

• Hayden’s argument regarding feasting societies suggests that:

  • Competitive feasting led to agricultural development, which overlooks the role of slavery.

• Slavery can function as an alternative to food production, allowing leisure for elite classes.

Examination of Slavery in Northwest Coast

• Patterns of slavery linked to elite lifestyles and societal needs:

  • Nobles' avoidance of menial labor led to capturing slaves through raiding.

SOCIO-CULTURAL DYNAMICS

The Tale of the "Wogies"

• Legend of the Chetco tribe describes historical perceptions of Euro-Americans as enslaved craftsmen.

• Suggests a cautionary tale savored by neighboring tribes, which teaches against slavery.

• Indicates moral values of hard work over exploitation and addresses fears of laziness from illicit prosperity.

Historical Context of Slavery

• Evidence points toward historical presence of slavery on the Northwest Coast dating back to 1850 BC, visible in:

  • Defensive fortifications,

  • Warfare signs,

  • Labor intensification markers.

• Contrast with California where archaeological evidence points toward minimal to non-existent slavery practices.

CONCLUSION

Summary of Findings

• Lack of slavery in Northern California as a conscious rejection of exploitation.

• Essential to understand historical engagements among neighboring societies shaping diverse value systems.

• Need to explore political differences and their evolution from the ground up, not only focusing on ecological or demographic aspects.

Implications for Future Research

• Calls for deeper examination of the social dynamics, ethical considerations, and political transformations of Aboriginal societies.

• Recognition that the history of slavery and its rejection offers insights into how extensive networks of decentralized communities structured their identities and values against coercive practices.

REFERENCES

• Extensive literature cited includes Goldschmidt, Levi-Strauss, Bateson, and various ethnographic and archaeological studies supporting arguments presented.

• The concepts explored challenge prevailing narratives and encourage reevaluation of the history and anthropology of foraging societies.