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Figure 2-1: Basic Components of a Moral System
- Rules of Conduct:
  - Action-guiding rules, e.g., directives and social policies.
- Principles of Evaluation:
  - Evaluative standards for justifying rules of conduct.
  - Types of rules include:
    - Individual actions (micro-level ethical rules).
    - Social policies (macro-level ethical rules).
  - Examples: "Do not steal" & "Do not harm others"; social policies like "Software should be protected."

Table 2-1: Four Features of Gert’s Moral System
- Public: Rules known to all members.
- Informal: Rules not formal like laws.
- Rational: Based on logical principles accessible to all.
- Impartial: Not biased toward any group or individual.

Table 2-2: Summary of Logical Flaws
- Stopper #2: "Who am I to judge others?"
  - Confuses judging with being judgmental.
  - Misunderstands judging as condemnation vs. evaluation.
  - Ignores that judgment may sometimes be necessary.
- Stopper #3: "Ethics is a private matter."
  - Misconstrues morality as private when it is essentially public.
  - Overlooks the harms of personal morality impacting others.
  - Blurs moral choices with personal preferences.
- Stopper #1: "People disagree on moral issues."
  - Fails to recognize expert disagreements on moral topics.
  - Misses that consensus exists on many moral issues.
  - Confuses disagreements about principles with disagreements about facts.
- Stopper #4: "Morality is for individual cultures to decide."
  - Confuses descriptive claims (what is) with normative claims (what ought to be).
  - Assumes agreement on moral principles is unattainable.
  - Assumes morality is defined by majority cultural opinion.

Ethical theories can be categorized into four types:
- Consequence-based
- Duty-based
- Contract-based
- Character-based

Utilitarianism (Consequence-based)

Act Utilitarianism: is morally permissible if its consequences yield the greatest good for the most people impacted by that act.
- Criticism: Critics argue against the focus on individual acts’ consequences. Day-to-day actions are often guided by established principles rather than individual deliberation.
Rule Utilitarianism: An act X is permissible if following its associated general rule yields the greatest good for the most.
- Criticism: Critics highlight the connection between morality and happiness/pleasure, and argue morality cannot solely be judged by consequences.

Duty-based Ethical Theories (Deontology)

Emphasizes morality is founded on duties or obligations among individuals.
Rule Deontology (Kantian Ethics): Morality aligns with the Categorical Imperative, a standard for ethical behavior, defining actions that respect others as ends in themselves.
- Criticisms: The Categorical Imperative does not aid in resolving conflicts between competing duties (e.g., duties to keep promises versus tell the truth may conflict).
Act Deontology: David Ross emphasizes the importance of analyzing contexts when duties conflict. Unlike utilitarians, he states consequences shouldn't determine overriding duties.

Contract-based Ethical Theories

Social contract theory proposes moral systems arise from agreements between individuals.
- Advantages: Provides motivation for morality, suggesting it serves individual self-interests to uphold a moral framework. A unique advantage over utilitarian and deontological theories.
- Criticisms: Critics assert it endorses a minimalistic morality, activating obligations only in the presence of contracts. Challenges arise where explicit contracts do not exist, yet moral obligations may still prevail.

Character-based Ethical Theories (Virtue Ethics)

Prioritizes character development and the cultivation of virtues over outcome or duty.
- Criticism: This approach tends to emphasize communal values over individual autonomy, contrasting Western ideals post-Enlightenment focus on individual rights.

Table 2-3: Ethical Theory Overview
- Consequence-based: Promotes happiness but neglects justice.
- Duty-based: Upholds duties but undervalues happiness.
- Contract-based: Motivates morality while offering minimal guidance.
- Character-based: Focuses on moral growth but relies on community standards.

Some ethicists advocate combining theories, e.g., a synthesis of consequentialism and deontology.
James Moor's “Just Consequentialism” model encompasses elements of:
- Deontology (justice)
- Utilitarianism (consequences)

Just Consequentialism: A Two-Step Strategy
1. Deliberate impartially on potential policies to ascertain ethical standing, assessing whether they avoid unnecessary harm and support rights and duties.
2. From the set of just policies, rank them by benefits vs. justifiable harms, considering consequences distinguishing between disagreements regarding facts and values.