Brown vs. Board of Education and Massive Resistance

Landmark Supreme Court case that declared segregation in public schools illegal.
Overturned the precedent set by Plessy versus Ferguson (1890s), which allowed segregation if facilities were "separate but equal".
Ruled that separate facilities are inherently unequal, regardless of physical conditions.

A campaign by white southerners to resist the Brown versus Board of Education decision.
Led by Senator Harry Byrd of Virginia, who coined the term "massive resistance."

African Americans were about 20% of Virginia's population.
Black schools were significantly inferior in terms of:
- Facilities.
- Materials.
- Teachers' salaries.
- Transportation.
This limited economic opportunities for black children.
African Americans often had to raise funds to build their own schools.
The NAACP began to charter segregated schools in the 1930s, led by attorneys like Oliver Hill and Thurgood Marshall.
Protests against segregated schools became more frequent.

In 1951, the NAACP sued the Prince Edward County school board.
They lost in federal court but appealed to the Supreme Court.
This case was combined with similar cases under the name Brown versus Topeka Board of Education.
In 1954, the Supreme Court unanimously (9-0) sided with the NAACP.

A political machine that dominated Virginia politics for much of the 20th century.
Led by US Senator Harry Byrd.
Very conservative and opposed Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal in the 1930s.
Advocated for Virginia and other Southern states to resist the Brown decision.

Various strategies were employed to prevent integration.
These strategies were often successful for many years.
Some argue that the effects are still visible today, with schools remaining largely segregated.
Governor of Virginia, Thomas Stanley, a member of the Byrd Organization, pledged to fight the decision.

Referenced to emphasize that federal law supersedes state laws.
The Supreme Court case McCulloch versus Maryland establishes that the federal constitution invalidates any conflicting state laws or constitutions.

Governor Stanley appointed 32 white men to study the effects of the Brown decision.
Chaired by Garland Gray.
Objective: to find ways to stall or ignore the ruling.
Members largely came from areas with high black populations.
Most sessions were held in private.
January 1955: Preliminary report opposed integration and pledged to prevent enforced integration.

A second Supreme Court decision in May 1955.
Ordered federal district courts to mandate desegregation "with all deliberate speed."
This vague wording was used by Southern states to delay integration.
Some places avoided significant integration for over a decade.

Closing schools or entire school districts.
Integrating a few black children into white schools.
Using state money to fund private white academies.
Brown Two was disappointing to civil rights activists but provided an opening for segregationists.

Proposed:
- Selective repeal of compulsory school attendance laws.
- Locally controlled pupil placement boards.
- Grants for parents to send children to private academies.

Coined by Byrd in early 1956 after the Gray Commission's report.
Called for white Virginians and Southerners to resist Brown.
Believed that if the South held out long enough, the rest of the country would lose interest.
The Southern Manifesto, written by Strom Thurmond, was signed by many Southern congressmen.
Strom Thurmond served in the US Senate from 1954 until his death in 2003 at age 101.
Signed by 19 senators and 82 representatives, excluding:
- Senators Al Gore Sr. and Estes Kefauver from Tennessee.
- Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas.

Editorials argued that states could nullify federal laws (using Civil War arguments, incorrectly).
Virginia acted punitively against those attempting to desegregate.
When Arlington County School Board planned phased desegregation, the general assembly revoked their special election status.
Governor Stanley convened a special session of the general assembly in August 1956 to act on massive resistance legislation.

Democrat Attorney General Jay Lindsey Almond (supported massive resistance) versus Republican Theodore Roosevelt Dalton (supported limited desegregation).
Allmend won with over 63% of the vote, framing it as an all-or-nothing issue.

Federal district court judges ordered black students to be admitted to Warren County High School and schools in Charlottesville.
Another judge ordered six white schools in Norfolk to admit black students.
Allmend responded by closing the schools, affecting approximately 13,000 students.

The debate shifted from segregation versus desegregation to segregation versus closed schools.
Those with money could send their children to private academies, but it was not feasible for smaller rural communities.
White parents in Arlington, Norfolk, and other cities formed the Virginia Committee for Public Schools and pressured Allmend to reopen the schools.
Business leaders also pressured Allmend, stating the school closures were hurting the economy.
Allmend waited for court decisions.
Both federal and state supreme courts ruled the school closures unconstitutional.

Allmend repealed the closing laws and permitted desegregation, realizing the fight was futile.
17 black students in Norfolk and 4 in Arlington County enrolled.
Integration occurred peacefully despite fears of disruption.

While the initial integration was peaceful, it should not erase the experiences of black students.
They likely faced hostility from students, teachers, and administration.
Desegregation was ugly.
Examples:
- Ruby Bridges being escorted by armed US Marshals in New Orleans.
- Elizabeth Eckford being shouted down as part of the Little Rock Nine.
- Armed national guardsmen protecting the Little Rock Nine at Central High School in Little Rock.