History Grade 10: Post-1991 Developments and Indigenous Heritage in Ethiopia

Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE)

  • Historical Context and Downfall of the Derg

    • In 1991, Ethiopia concluded a decades-long civil war and moved away from the Marxist military junta (the Derg).
    • The regime was toppled by a coalition of ethno-nationalist forces known as the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Front (EPRDF).
    • EPRDF Composition:
      • Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF): The dominant force in the coalition.
      • Ethiopian Peoples' Democratic Movement (EPDM).
      • Oromo People's Democratic Organization (OPDO).
      • Southern Ethiopian People's Democratic Movement (SEPDM): Joined the coalition in 1992.

  • The May 1991 London Conference

    • Sponsor: The United States of America.
    • Mediator: Herman Cohen, U.S. Assistant Secretary for African Affairs.
    • Attendees:
      • Ethiopian Government: Headed by Tesfaye Dinka.
      • EPLF (Eritrean People's Liberation Front): Under Isaias Afwerki.
      • EPRDF: Under Meles Zenawi.
      • OLF (Oromo Liberation Front): Under Lencho Letta (deputy secretary-general).
    • Outcome: The conference was aimed at setting up a transitional government but was overtaken by events when insurgents occupied Addis Ababa on May 28, 1991. Talks with the previous government representatives collapsed immediately.

  • The 1991 Transitional Charter and the Formation of TGE

    • Ethiopian Democratic and Peaceful Transitional Conference: Convened in the first week of July 1991 in Addis Ababa.
    • Organizational Basis: Representation was based on the size of the ethnic groups political organizations claimed to represent.
    • Leadership: Meles Zenawi chaired the meeting. Herman Cohen announced that the EPRDF would lead the interim government.
    • Key Provisions:
      • Eritrean Issue: De facto acceptance of Eritrean secession via a referendum limited to Eritreans. This passed with only one vote against and four abstentions. The EPLF offered Assab as a free port for Ethiopia.
      • Ethnic Federation: Initial plans were made to reorganize the state based on ethnic federation, granting nationalities the right to administer their own territory.
    • Government Structure:
      • Council of Representatives: 87 members representing 32 political groups. EPRDF-allied groups held 32 of these 87 seats.
      • Council of Ministers: 17 members, ethnically mixed. The OLF held four ministerial positions.
      • President: Meles Zenawi was elected chairman of the Council of Representatives and president of Ethiopia.
      • Regional Administration: The Charter established 14 "self-governing regions" based on nations, nationalities, and peoples.

  • Challenges and Instability (1991–1995)

    • Instability arose from the dominance of the EPRDF.
    • The OLF withdrew from the government nearly a year after its formation.
    • In March 1993, the TGE expelled members of the Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition.
    • In June 1994, elections were held for a 547-member Constituent Assembly to adopt a new constitution.

The 1995 Constitution and the Formation of the FDRE

  • General Features

    • The 1995 constitution established Ethiopia as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE).
    • Structure: 106 articles organized into 11 chapters.
    • Core Principles: Rule of law, self-determination, popular (ethnic) sovereignty, inter-ethnic and inter-religious equality, gender equality, constitutional supremacy, secularism, and government accountability.

  • Rights and Liberties

    • Articles 13 through 44 (31 articles) detail individual rights, civil liberties, and economic, socio-cultural, and environmental rights.
    • Collective Rights: Emphasizes the rights of ethno-national communities.
    • Article 39: Grants ethno-national communities the right to self-determination, including the right to promote culture/language, preserve history, enjoy "a full measure of self-governance," and the right to secede from the Ethiopian polity.

  • Governmental Organs

    • House of Peoples' Representatives (HPR): Supreme political organ; members elected for five-year terms. It holds legislative, decisional, and representative powers.
    • House of Federation (HoF): The Upper House, composed of representatives from each "Nation, Nationality, and People." Its primary task is constitutional interpretation (Article 62).
    • Judiciary: Independent three-tier hierarchy headed by the Federal Supreme Court. While courts handle justiciable cases, ultimate interpretive power over the constitution resides with the HoF.

  • Member States and Administrative Subdivisions

    • The FDRE consists of 9 ethno-national states and 2 city administrations (Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa).
    • The Nine States:
      1. Afar
      2. Amhara
      3. Benishangul-Gumuz
      4. Gambella
      5. Harari (The smallest at 340 km2340\,\text{km}^2)
      6. Oromia (Accounts for one-third of the total landmass)
      7. Somalia
      8. Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples' State (SNNPRS)
      9. Tigray
    • Ethnic Diversity within States:
      • SNNPRS includes approximately 56 different groups.
      • Benishangul/Gumuz and Gambella contain 4–5 ethnic groups.
      • Tigray includes the Erob and Kunama in addition to the Tigray people.
      • Amhara includes Agaw and Oromo minorities.
      • Oromos and Amharas together constitute approximately 70%70\% of the total population.

  • Language Policy

    • All languages are declared equal.
    • Amharic: The working language at the federal level.
    • State-Level Working Languages:
      • Tigray: Tigrigna.
      • Oromia: Afaan Oromo.
      • Somalia: Somali.
      • Harari: Harari, Afaan Oromo, and Amharic.
      • Afar: Amharic (temporarily, until the Afar script is developed for bureaucracy).
      • Benishangul/Gumuz, Gambella, and SNNPRS: Amharic (chosen as a neutral language for diverse groups).

Hydro-Political History of the Nile (Abay) Basin

  • Geographic Background

    • Length: World's longest river, flowing south to north for approximately 6825 km6825\,\text{km}.
    • Coordinates: Crosses 35 degrees of latitude (4∘S4^{\circ}\text{S} to 31∘N31^{\circ}\text{N}).
    • Three Major Tributaries:
      • Blue Nile (Abay): Originates in Western Gojjam (Sekela, 100 km100\,\text{km} south of Lake Tana). It contributes 86%86\% of the Nile's annual volume. It is called "Gilgel Abbay" from its source to Lake Tana.
      • Tekkeze (Atbara): Originates in the Siemen Mountains; enters Sudan around Gallabat and joins the main Nile north of Khartoum.
      • White Nile: Headstreams flow into Lake Victoria.
    • Nile Riparian Countries (11): Burundi, DRC, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and South Sudan.

  • Historical Water Agreements

    • 1929 Agreement: Signed between Great Britain (on behalf of Sudan) and Egypt. It granted Egypt veto power over Nile projects but was not binding on upper riparian states like Ethiopia.
    • 1959 Agreement: Signed by Egypt and Sudan after a deadlock (1956–19581956\text{--}1958).
      • Egypt's share: 55.5 billion cubic meters55.5\,\text{billion cubic meters}.
      • Sudan's share: 18.5 billion cubic meters18.5\,\text{billion cubic meters}.
      • Ethiopia's contribution (86%86\%) was ignored, leaving it with less than 1%1\% use of the water until recent times.

  • Modern Initiatives and GERD

    • Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA): Signed by Meles Zenawi and Hosni Mubarak. It focused on general cooperation but avoided mentioning "fair and equitable utilization" or the 1959 agreement.
    • Nile Basin Initiatives (NBI): Signed February 22, 1999, in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. This was the first all-inclusive basin-wide institution for coordination.
    • Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD):
      • Location: Benishangul-Gumuz region on the Abbay River.
      • Commencement: April 2011.
      • Capacity: 74 billion cubic meters74\,\text{billion cubic meters}.
      • Financing: Largely self-financed.
      • Status: Escalated disputes with Egypt and Sudan due to the unilateral commencement of construction.

Development Issues and Democratization Challenges

  • Economic History and Growth

    • In 1992, the TGE adopted a free-market economic model, departing from the previous socialist model.
    • Agricultural-led Development of Industrialization (ALDI): A strategy aimed at transforming the agrarian economy by creating a surplus in agriculture to stimulate industrial demand.
    • Growth Statistics:
      • 1981–19911981\text{--}1991: 0.5%0.5\% per annum.
      • 1992–20041992\text{--}2004: 5.1%5.1\% per annum.
      • 2005–20152005\text{--}2015: 10.9%10.9\% per annum.
    • Infrastructure Improvements: The road network grew from 18000 km18000\,\text{km} in 1991 to over 120000 km120000\,\text{km} (a 70%70\% increase over 25 years).

  • Socio-Economic Challenges

    • Poverty levels: Approximately 25 million25\,\text{million} people (one-quarter of the population) live below the poverty line (defined as less than 1.25 dollars1.25\,\text{dollars}).
    • Food Insecurity: Between 5 million5\,\text{million} and 18 million18\,\text{million} Ethiopians depend on food aid annually. A major drought occurred in 2015.
    • Wealth Inequality: Growth is characterized by a lack of fair distribution among regional states.

  • The Problematic Democratization Process

    • The FDRE constitution is criticized by some as a formalization of the EPRDF's political program rather than a fresh start.
    • Election History:
      • 1995 and 2000: Largely boycotted by opposition parties.
      • 2005: Significant participation. Opposition alliances (CUD and UEDF) gained 173173 out of 547547 seats. CUD won all federal seats in Addis Ababa. Controversy led to protests where over 200 people died; leaders and journalists were subsequently imprisoned.
      • 2010 and 2015: Followed a similar pattern of EPRDF dominance.

Indigenous Knowledge and Conflict Resolution in Ethiopia

  • Core Concepts

    • Indigenous knowledge (or local knowledge) provides problem-solving strategies compatible with a society's way of life, transmitted orally through generations.

  • Regional Mechanisms

    • Afar People:
      • Mada'a: Unwritten indigenous law used by elders and clan leaders for conflict resolution.
      • Dagu: A unique information exchange system and communication network for managing news about social, environmental, and physical conditions.
    • Oromo People:
      • Gadaa System: A democratic system organized into five classes rotating every 8 years.
      • Jaarsummaa: The process of reconciliation led by elders (Jaarsaas).
      • Gumaa: A system for resolving murder or homicide cases involving "blood money" payments to the victim's family.
      • Siinqee (Siiqee): A stick symbolizing women's rights and organization. Women use it for religious, social, and political functions to protect their status and resolve conflicts (e.g., between spouses).
    • Amhara People:
      • Shimgelina: Use of five Shimageles (elders) to make binding decisions. Often includes a priest as chairman to increase social acceptance.
    • Sidama People:
      • Luwa System: Age-grade system rotating every 8 years with five grades: Darara, Fullassa, Hirobora, Wawassa, and Mogissa. Objectives include defense training and elder development.
      • Seera: A social constitution based on the moral code of Halale (the ultimate truth).
    • Kambata and Hadiya: Also utilize the Seera system for political administration and dispute resolution.

Heritages of Ethiopia

  • UNESCO World Heritage Sites (Tangible)

    1. Stelae of Axum (Tigray): Symbolizes the Aksumite civilization; listed 1980.
    2. Rock-hewn Churches of Lalibela (Amhara): 11 churches carved from single rock; listed 1978.
    3. Fasil Ghebbi (Gondar): Royal enclosure marking ancient architectural beauty; listed 1979.
    4. Simien Mountains National Park (Amhara): Home to Gelada baboon, Simien fox, and Walia ibex; listed 1978.
    5. Lower Valley of Awash (Afar): Paleo-anthropological site (e.g., Lucy); listed 1980.
    6. Lower Valley of Omo (SNNPRS): Location of human and animal fossils; listed 1980.
    7. Tiya (Soddo Region): 36 monuments/stelae with carved symbols; listed 1980.
    8. Harar Jugol (Harar): Fortified historic town with walls built in the 16th century by Emir Nur Ibn Mujahid; listed 2006.
    9. Konso Cultural Landscape: Stone-walled terraces and fortified settlements; listed 2011.

  • UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages

    1. Mesqel Demera Ceremony: Finding of the True Cross; listed 2013.
    2. Gadaa System: Democratic socio-political system of the Oromo; listed 2016.
    3. Fichee-Chambalaalla: Sidama New Year celebration; listed 2015.
    4. Timket (Epiphany): Commemoration of Jesus' baptism on January 19th or 20th; listed 2019.

  • Other Significant Heritages

    • Festivals: Ashenda (Tigray/Amhara), Irreecha (Oromo Thanksgiving),
    • Manuscripts: Written tradition in the G'ez language since the 4th century using goat-skin parchment.
    • Temples: Temple of Yeha (dated to around 700BC700\text{BC}).
    • Mosques: Mosque of Negash (Tigray), Grand Anwar Mosque (Addis Ababa).
    • Palaces: Jimma Abba Jifar I, Menilek (Grand Palace), and Kumsa Moreda (Nekemte).
    • Natural Formations: Sof Omar Caves (limestone caves formed by the Weyb River); Halala Keela (Dawuro dry-stone walls).