biology final

I. The Science of Biology

• Characteristics of Life (MRS GREN):

  • Movement:

  • Respiration:

  • Sensitivity:

  • Growth:

  • Reproduction:

  • Excretion:

  • Nutrition:

• Basic Theories of Modern Biology

  • Cell Theory (All Cells Pre-exist):

    • Cells are the basic unit of life.

    • All cells come from pre-existing cells.

    • All metabolism occurs in cells.

  • Gene Theory (DNA Rules Everything):

    • Genetic info is stored in DNA (genes).

    • Genes control aspects of an organism.

    • DNA transcribed to RNA, translated to protein.

  • Homeostasis:

    • Living organisms maintain constant internal environment.

    • Purpose: Ensure proper body function.

II. Chemical Basis of Life

• Cell Organelles & Functions (My Very Energetic Mother Just Served Us Nachos):

  • Mitochondria: Powerhouse.

  • Vacuole: Storage

  • Endoplasmic Reticulum: Transports materials.

  • Microtubules: Cell Shape

  • Junctions: cellular connection

  • Solgi appartus: Packages and Modifies.

  • Uh oh sorry guys

  • Nucleus: Control center.

• Cell Membrane: Lipid bilayer for protection, communication, selective exchange.

• Passive Transport (DownHill): Osmosis, diffusion, facilitated diffusion (high to low concentration).

• Active Transport (UpHill): Movement against natural diffusion.

• Cell Types:

  • Prokaryotes: Bacteria (DNA, ribosomes, cell membrane, NO organelles).

  • Eukaryotes: Animals & Plants (organelles, cell membranes).

    • Plants also have chloroplasts & cell walls.

• Atoms: Electrons, neutrons, protons.

• Molecules: Formed by atoms joined by chemical bonds.

• Chemical Bonds:

  • Ionic Bond (Electron Thief): Atoms lose or gain electrons.

  • Covalent Bond (Electron Share): Atoms share electrons (strong, in organic chemicals).

  • Hydrogen Bond (Weak Attraction): Weak electrical attraction between molecules.

• Buffers: Resist pH change.

• pH: Concentration of hydrogen ions [H^+]

• Organic Molecules (CLuNP): Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic Acids, Proteins

III. Cellular Respiration

• Aerobic Respiration (Oxygen Required):

  • Glycolysis (Splitting Glucose): Glucose broken down into pyruvate (2 ATP).

  • Krebs Cycle (Energy Extraction): Acetyl CoA cycles, electrons passed to NADH & FADH2 (2 ATP).

  • Oxidative Phosphorylation (ATP Production): 32 ATP produced.

• Anaerobic Respiration (No Oxygen):

  • Glycolysis (Splitting Glucose): Glucose to pyruvate (2 ATP).

  • Fermentation (Recycling Glycolysis): Pyruvate broken down into ethanol or lactic acid.

• Metabolism (Life Chemical Reactions): Chemical reactions for life.

  • Anabolism (Building Up): Construction of molecules (protein synthesis, glycogenesis).

  • Catabolism (Breaking Down): Breakdown of molecules (glycolysis, beta oxidation).

IV. Photosynthesis

• Chloroplast: Organelle in plant cells where photosynthesis occurs.

• Photophosphorylation (ATP Light): ATP generated via light reactions.

• Light Reaction (Light Energy): Light harvested, electron transfer occurs (ATP, NADPH, O2 generated).

• Dark Reaction (Calvin Cycle or Carbon Fixation): CO2 fixed, carbohydrates generated (ATP & NADPH consumed).

• Chlorophyll: Proteins in chloroplasts that absorb sunlight.

V. The Cell Cycle (IPMAT):

• (I Pee More At The Toilet)

  • Interphase

  • Prophase: Chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope breaks down, centrioles move.

  • Metaphase: Chromosomes line up in the middle, spindle fibers attach.

  • Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite sides.

  • Telophase: Chromosomes dissolve, nuclear envelopes reform.

• Checkpoints (Guarding The System): G1, S, G2, M (ensure proper progression).

VI. Introduction to Ecology

• Ecology (Eco-Living): Study of organisms and environment.

• Organisms show behavioral, physiological, morphological responses to the environment

• Environment (ALIVE): Abiotic, Living Interactions Value Earth Abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) factors.

  • Abiotic: Temperature, water, light, soil, wind, fire.

  • Biotic: Plants, animals.

• Ecological Levels (Big Cats Play In Parks):

  • Biosphere: Entire portion of Earth inhabited by life.

  • Biomes: Major communities with similar vegetation.

  • Community: Group of populations in the same area.

  • Population: Group of individuals of the same species.

• Producers: Green plants capturing sunlight.

• Consumers: Organisms that eat other organisms.

• Food Web: Complex feeding relationships.

• Chemical Cycling: Transfer of energy between forms.

VII. Communities, Ecosystems, and Biomes

• Ecological Succession:

  • Primary Succession (New Life): Life begins where none existed before.

  • Secondary Succession (Life Returns): Change in species composition.

• Aquatic Ecosystems: Oceans, lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries.

• Terrestrial Biomes: Ecosystems sharing climate, flora, fauna.

• Community Interactions (CPM):

  • Competition (interspecific, competitive exclusion principle).

  • Predation (plant/animal defenses).

  • Symbiosis: Parasitism, Commensalism, Mutualism

• Ecological Niche:The role and position a species has in its environment; how it meets its needs for food and shelter, how it survives, and how it reproduces

VIII. Population Ecology

• Population: Group of individuals of a species in a specific area.

• Population Density: Individuals per unit area.

• Dispersion (CUR): Pattern of spacing within population (clumped, uniform, random).

• Population Range: Geographic limits of a population.

  • Absolute density vs. Ecological density

• Habitat Selection: Behavior of animals moving toward specific microenvironment.

• Limiting Factors:

  • Density-independent: Weather, natural disasters.

  • Density-dependent: Parasitism, predation, human activities, disease, competition.

IX. Conservation Ecology

• Reforestation: Development of forest in deforested area.

• Conservation: Safeguarding, maintaining natural resources.

• Resources: Materials satisfying human needs.

  • Plant and animal wealth, land, soil, air, minerals, water, energy.

• Types of Resources (CNR):

  • Continuous Resources

  • Renewable Resources

  • Non-renewable Resources

X. Genetics

• Chromosome: Functional unit of heredity, contains DNA.

• Meiosis: Reproductive process producing unique haploid cells (gametes).

• Haploid & Diploid: 1 Copy, 2 Copies

• Dominant/Recessive Alleles (Strong Over Weak): If present, the dominant allele appears in the phenotype.

• Co-Dominance (Both Expressed): Both dominant alleles show up in the phenotype.

• Incomplete Dominance (Blend): Phenotype is a mix of the two alleles.

• Polygenic Traits (Many Genes): Multiple genes combine to create a trait.

XI. Nucleic Acids

• DNA (Genetic Code):

  • Cellular genetic material.

  • Two strands with base pairing (A-T, C-G).

  • Anti-parallel double helix.

• RNA Classes (mTRN): Copies info from DNA.

  • mRNA: Copies info from DNA.

  • tRNA: Carries amino acids.

  • rRNA: Component for ribosome.

  • ncRNA: Regulates cellular processes.

• The Central Dogma (DMRProt): DNA → mRNA → Protein

• Transcription (DNA copy): RNA polymerase reads DNA, produces pre-mRNA, which is then spliced into mRNA.

• Translation (mRNA decode): Ribosomes read mRNA, tRNA brings amino acids to produce proteins.

XII. The Human Genome

• Genetic Disorder: Disease caused by DNA at birth.

  • Autosomal-Recessive (Both parents):

    • Sex-Linked

    • Autosomal-Dominant all it takes is one copy

• Genetic Engineering

  • Bacterial Cells (insert into plasmid)

  • Plant Cells (insert engineered DNA, infect with virus)

  • Animal Cells (inject into egg nucleus)

XIII. Evolution

• Heritable Adaptation: Inherited trait leading to reproductive advantage.

• Punctuated Equilibrium: Rapid evolutionary changes followed by stabilization.

• Natural selection:

  • Differential reproductive success of species carrying particular traits

  • Survival of the “Fittest”. Fit refers to best fit to environment

  • Random Variation of traits in a population

  • Adaptation more offspring carrying advantageous traits

  • Interaction of species with environment

XIV. Evolutionary History

• Precambrian Time: 99% of Earth’s history, aquatic life.

• Paleozoic Era: First invertebrates and vertebrates, movement onto land.

• Mesozoic Era: Age of Reptiles, dinosaurs, mammals appeared.

• Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals, humans appeared.

XV. Classification

• Taxonomy: Study and classification of organisms.

• Animalia: Kingdom of heterotrophic consumers.

• Binomial Nomenclature: Genus and species naming system.

• Phylogeny: Classifying organisms based on evolutionary relationships.

• Five Kingdom System: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

XVI. Bacteria and Viruses

• Bacteria: Smallest prokaryotes.

• Binary Fission: Asexual reproduction in prokaryotes.

• DNA Transfer Methods (ConTransTrans):

  • Conjugation (sex pilus)

  • Transformation (uptake of dead bacteria's DNA)

  • Transduction (virus mediated)

• Oxygen Requirements (AOF):

  • Obligate Anaerobes (no oxygen)

  • Facultative Anaerobes (with or without oxygen)

  • Aerobic (require oxygen)

• Viral Life Cycles:

  • Lytic Cycle (kills host cell)

  • Lysogenic Cycle (integrates into host DNA)

• Virus Structure: Capsid, Genetic Material, Tail Fibers

XVII. Plants

• Transpiration: Evaporation pulls water from roots via stomata.

• Plant vs. Animal Cells:

  • Cell wall (cellulose in plants)

  • Large central vacuole (structure support)

  • Chloroplast (photosynthesis)

• Plant Structures (Leaves Stem Root):

  • Root (anchors, absorbs nutrients)

  • Stem (support, transport)

  • Leaves (photosynthesis, transpiration)

XVIII. The Nervous System

• Neuron Components (Dendrites Axon):

  • Dendrite

  • Cell Body

  • Axon

  • Terminal Branches

• Neurotransmitter: Carries information to the next neuron.

• Nervous System Divisions:

  • Central (Brain, Spinal Cord)

  • Peripheral (Motor, Sensory)

  • Autonomic (Sympathetic, Parasympathetic)

  • Somatic

XIX. The Skeletal, Muscular, and Integumentary Systems

• Muscle Types (Skeletal Smooth Cardiac):

  • Skeletal Muscle (striated, voluntary, attached to bones)

  • Smooth Muscle (not striated, involuntary, intestines)

  • Cardiac Muscle (striated, heart)
    Actin and Myosin are proteins involved in muscle contraction

XX. Respiratory and Circulatory Systems

• Respiratory System: Gas exchange.

• Circulatory System: Delivers oxygenated blood.

XXI. Digestive and Excretory Systems

• Digestive System Processes (IDEA):

  • Ingestion (mouth, esophagus)

  • Digestion (stomach, liver, pancreas)

  • Absorption (small/large intestine)

  • Elimination (rectum)

• Excretory System (Skin Lung Liver Kidney):

  • Skin (excretes urea)

  • Lungs (excretes CO2)

  • Liver (detoxifies compounds)

  • Kidneys (filters blood)

XXII. Endocrine and Reproductive Systems

• Key Glands:

  • Hypothalamus (controls pituitary)

  • Pituitary (signals other glands)

  • Thyroid (thyroxine, metabolism)

  • Parathyroid (calcium levels)
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