Psychology Lecture Notes - Flashcards

Scientific Method and Foundations of Psychology

  • PSYC 09/01: For study guides, combine readings + notes from lecture.

  • Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

  • Key terms:

    • Behavior: observable actions (talking, facial expressions, movement).

    • Mental processes: internal activities (thinking, feeling, remembering).

    • Hub science: psychology influences many fields (cancer research, health, migration, climate change).

  • Why science in psychology?

    • Systematic approach reduces bias and yields reliable observations.

    • Distinguishes between expectations and actual behavior.

  • Scientific Method steps (from intro):
    1) Questions based on observations.
    2) Develop a testable guess – the hypothesis – specify variables that can vary or be measured.
    3) Test hypothesis.
    4) Draw conclusions (learning from being wrong; retest to check for luck).
    5) Report.

Historical Roots and Core Theme

  • Psychology is relatively young; ~146 years old.

  • Before formal discipline: philosophers, medical doctors, physiologists explored mind–body connections.

  • Philosophers: Plato, Aristotle, Descartes.

  • Early scientists in perception: Gustav Fechner (perception experiments), Hermann von Helmholtz (visual and auditory perception).

  • Core integrative theme: general principles of behavior with recognition of individual differences in motivation and experience.

Founders and Pioneers

  • Wilhelm Wundt — Founder of Psychology

    • First psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany (1879).

    • Introduced objective introspection: measuring one’s own thoughts and mental activities.

    • Consciousness could be broken into basic elements: thoughts, emotions, experiences.

    • Emphasized objectivity and measurement; founded psychology as a science.

  • Edward Titchener — Structuralism (Wundt’s student at Cornell)

    • Structure of the mind; experiences broken into emotions and sensations.

    • Used introspection for both physical sensations and abstract thoughts.

  • Margaret F. Washburn — first woman with psychology Ph.D. (student of Titchener).

  • William James — Functionalism

    • Harvard professor; Principles of Psychology (influential).

    • Focused on how the mind helps people function in daily life; influenced by Darwin.

    • Led to fields like educational psychology, I-O psychology, evolutionary psychology.

  • Underrepresented pioneers:

    • Mary Whiton Calkins: completed Ph.D. requirements but denied degree; first woman APA president.

  • 20th-century minority contributions:

    • Francis Cecil Sumner: first Black American Ph.D. in psychology; founder of Black American psychology.

    • Kenneth & Mamie Clark: studied segregation effects; Kenneth Clark was a first Black APA president.

    • George Sanchez: Hispanic psychologist studying cultural bias in intelligence testing.

    • Other notable figures: Inez Beverly Prosser, Ruth Howard, Charles Henry Thompson, Albert Sidney Beckham, Robert Prentiss Daniel, Howard Hale Long.

Gestalt and Psychoanalytic Traditions

  • Gestalt Psychology — Max Wertheimer

    • Core idea: experiences (perception) must be understood as whole patterns, not decomposed.

    • Slogan: “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”

    • Legacy: influenced cognitive psychology, social psychology, Gestalt therapy; humans naturally seek patterns in sensory input.

  • Psychoanalysis — Sigmund Freud

    • Core ideas: behavior driven by unconscious motives and repressed desires; early childhood shapes personality.

    • Therapy aims to uncover unconscious motives to treat disorders.

    • Legacy: influenced modern psychotherapy; key followers: Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Anna Freud, Erik Erikson.

Behaviorism and Early Social-Psychological Contributions

  • Behaviorism — key figures: Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Rosalie Rayner, Mary Cover Jones

    • Core ideas: psychology should focus on observable behavior; behavior learned via conditioning.

    • Classical conditioning (Pavlov’s dogs); conditioned fear (Watson & Rayner’s Little Albert); counterconditioning (Mary Cover Jones’s Little Peter).

    • Legacy: remains influential; paved the way for behavior therapy and cognitive psychology.

  • Diversity in Psychology

    • Early underrepresented contributors overcame barriers; Dr. Alexandra Rutherford highlighted contributions via Psychology’s Feminist Voices.

Modern Perspectives in Psychology (Major and Additional)

  • 1) Psychodynamic Perspective

    • Evolved from Freud’s psychoanalysis.

    • Focus: unconscious mind, early experiences, interpersonal relationships.

    • Modern view adds self-development and social motivations; sometimes links neurobiology with psychodynamic concepts.

  • 2) Behavioral Perspective

    • Origins: Watson and Skinner.

    • Emphasizes observable behavior and conditioning; operant conditioning: behaviors followed by rewards are reinforced.

  • 3) Humanistic Perspective

    • The “third force.”

    • Emphasizes free will, self-actualization, personal growth.

    • Key figures: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers; influences positive psychology.

  • 4) Cognitive Perspective

    • Studies thinking, memory, problem-solving, language.

    • Influenced by Piaget; computer models of cognition; includes cognitive neuroscience with brain imaging (MRI, fMRI, PET).

  • 5) Sociocultural Perspective

    • Combines social psychology and cultural psychology.

    • Focuses on culture and social context shaping behavior; cross-cultural research; bystander effect; influenced by Lev Vygotsky.

  • 6) Biopsychological Perspective

    • Biological bases of behavior: brain chemicals, hormones, genetics; overlaps with neuroscience.

    • Topics: sleep, emotions, sexual orientation, schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s disease.

  • 7) Evolutionary Perspective

    • Universal mental traits shaped by natural selection.

    • Explains fear, mate selection, altruism, emotional development; traits evolved to solve problems faced by early humans.

  • Additional perspectives

    • Feminist Psychology: women’s experiences and gender biases in healthcare and emotion.

    • Multicultural Psychology: identity factors shaping worldview and behavior.

    • Eclectic approach: many psychologists blend elements from multiple perspectives.

Modern Synthesis and Practice

  • Multiple perspectives used to understand behavior; no single perspective explains everything.

  • Psychologists’ professional roles and specializations

    • Psychologist: Ph.D., Psy.D., or Ed.D.; settings include academia, business, healthcare; may specialize in research, therapy, education, or design; typically cannot prescribe medication (except in some states or military roles).

    • Psychiatrist: M.D.; diagnoses and treats psychological disorders; can prescribe medication.

    • Psychiatric Social Worker: MSW; focuses on community factors affecting mental health (poverty, stress).

    • Other Professionals: licensed counselors, marriage and family therapists, substance abuse counselors; training ranges from associate to doctoral degrees.

  • Research in Psychology

    • Basic Research: aims to expand scientific knowledge (e.g., attention and distraction).

    • Applied Research: solves real-world problems (e.g., texting while driving).

Critical Thinking and Media Literacy in Psychology

  • What is Critical Thinking?

    • Making reasoned, logical judgments; asking questions; seeking evidence; evaluating claims.

    • Helps avoid false beliefs, poor decisions, harmful outcomes.

  • Why is it important?

    • The world contains misleading claims (miracle cures, astrology, homeopathy).

    • Critical thinking aids evaluation of media, advertising, and scientific claims.

  • Four Basic Criteria for Critical Thinking 1) Few truths are beyond testing

    • Most claims should be supported by empirical evidence; beliefs questioned unless based on faith or personal values.
      2) All evidence is not equal

    • Evaluate evidence gathering; beware poorly designed studies, bias, conflicts of interest.
      3) Authority ≠ Truth

    • Don’t take claims from experts as truth; seek supporting evidence; consider alternatives; use the parsimony principle: simplest explanation is often best.
      4) Open-mindedness

    • Be skeptical but not closed-minded; stay open to new evidence, even if it challenges beliefs.

  • Examples often cited

    • Astrology and homeopathy lack scientific support.

    • Crop circles explained by hoaxes, not aliens.

    • Life on Mars: no evidence yet; scientists remain open to possibilities.

  • Goals of Psychology

    • Describe behavior: observe and detail.

    • Explain behavior: understand why it happens.

    • Predict behavior: anticipate when it will recur.

    • Control behavior: modify behavior to achieve desired outcomes.

The Scientific Method in Psychology (Steps and Replication)

  • The five-step method to reduce bias and error:

    • Perceive the Question: identify an interesting or puzzling behavior.

    • Form a Hypothesis: make a testable, if–then statement, e.g., ext{If } X ext{, then } Y.

    • Test the Hypothesis: use experiments, surveys, or observations to collect data.

    • Draw Conclusions: analyze whether the hypothesis is supported.

    • Report Results: share findings to enable replication.

  • Example study: Sapna Cheryan on gender and computer science

    • Environmental cues (stereotypical vs. non-stereotypical environments) affect women’s interest and perceived fit in CS.

    • Demonstrates environmental cues’ influence on career choices.

  • Replication importance

    • Replication strengthens reliability; psychology faces a replicability crisis; researchers are improving methods and transparency.

Research Designs and Data Concepts

  • Empirical vs. Non-Empirical questions

    • Empirical: testable with evidence (e.g., Has life existed on Mars?).

    • Non-empirical: based on belief; not scientifically testable (e.g., meaning of life).

  • Naturalistic Observation

    • Observing behavior in natural environments (wild animals, public spaces).

    • Advantages: realistic picture of behavior.

    • Disadvantages: observer effect, observer bias, limited generalizability to other settings.

    • Solutions: masked observers; multiple observers for reliability.

  • Laboratory Observation

    • Controlled environment.

    • Advantages: greater variable control.

    • Disadvantages: behavior may be artificial.

  • Case Studies

    • In-depth study of one person or small group.

    • Advantages: detailed information; useful for rare conditions (e.g., Phineas Gage).

    • Disadvantages: cannot generalize; subject to researcher bias.

  • Surveys

    • Questions about attitudes, opinions, or behaviors; via interviews, questionnaires, or online.

    • Advantages: large samples; private behaviors.

    • Disadvantages: sampling bias; courtesy bias; question wording/order effects.

  • Correlation in research

    • Correlation measures the relationship between two or more variables and helps predict one from another.

    • Correlation coefficient: r indicates direction and strength of the relationship.

    • Range: -1 \, to \, +1

    • Interpretation:

    • Positive correlation: both variables move in the same direction.

    • Negative correlation: one increases as the other decreases.

    • Closer to ±1.00: stronger; closer to 0: weaker or no relationship.

    • Important reminder: Correlation does not imply causation; third variables may influence both.

  • Visual aids: Scatterplots illustrate direction and strength of relationships (perfect positive/negative, modest, none).

Experimental Method and Design

  • Experiments establish causal relationships by manipulating an independent variable (IV) and observing a dependent variable (DV) while controlling extraneous variables.

  • Steps in designing an experiment: 1) Selection of Participants

    • Random selection from a defined population to avoid bias.

    • Example: select 3–4-year-old children from day care centers or pediatrician referrals.
      2) Defining Variables

    • IV: manipulated variable (e.g., exposure to violent cartoons).

    • DV: measured behavior (e.g., aggressive actions).

    • Operational definitions: specify how variables are measured (e.g., a checklist of aggressive behaviors like hitting or pushing).
      3) Controlling Confounding Variables

    • Use control groups to isolate IV effects.

    • Example: compare violent-cartoon viewers (experimental group) vs nonviolent-cartoon viewers (control group).
      4) Random Assignment

    • Participants randomly assigned to experimental or control groups to evenly distribute extraneous variables.

  • Experimental groups vs control groups

    • Experimental Group: receives manipulated IV (e.g., violent cartoon).

    • Control Group: does not receive the treatment or receives a neutral condition (e.g., nonviolent cartoon).

  • Complex designs

    • Multiple experimental groups (different drug doses).

    • Multiple IVs (age, gender, video game exposure).

    • Multiple DVs (memory scores, anxiety levels).

  • Common problems in experiments

    • Placebo Effect: improvement due to expectation, not the treatment.

    • Example: sugar pill reduces pain due to belief.

    • Experimenter Effect: researcher’s expectations subtly influence participants.

    • Example: tone of voice or body language cues guide responses.

  • Controlling for these effects

    • Single-masked study: participants don’t know if receiving real treatment or placebo.

    • Double-masked (double-blind) study: neither participants nor experimenters know group assignments; data coded and revealed after analysis.

Ethics in Psychological Research

  • WEIRD Problem (Population bias)

    • Many studies use Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic populations; results may not generalize to non-WEIRD groups.

    • Researchers should state population studied and avoid overgeneralization.

  • Core Ethical Principles in Psychological Research 1) Participant Welfare Comes First

    • Rights and well-being must outweigh research value; no physical or psychological harm.
      2) Informed Consent

    • Clear, understandable information before participation; parental consent for children; even in masked studies, participants should know they may be in experimental or control group.
      3) Justified Use of Deception

    • Deception allowed only when necessary and explained afterward in debriefing.

    • True nature and purposes disclosed after study.
      4) Right to Withdraw

    • Participants may leave at any time without penalty.
      5) Risk Disclosure and Protection

    • Protect participants from risks; procedures must be safe; inform of potential risks.
      6) Debriefing

    • Explain study’s purpose and expected outcomes after participation; especially if deception used.
      7) Confidentiality

    • Data kept confidential; results reported in aggregate.
      8) Responsibility for Participant Well-being

    • Detect and correct unexpected negative effects; obligation to help vulnerable populations; not just data collection.

  • Special Considerations for Marginalized Groups

    • Avoid exploiting communities (Native American, LGBTQ+, impoverished groups).

    • Ethical research includes sharing results meaningfully and giving back to communities studied.

  • Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans

    • Psychologists prioritize participant health and welfare; core principles include rights, informed consent, deception justification, withdrawal rights, risk protection, debriefing, confidentiality, and responsible oversight.

Guidelines for Research with Nonhuman Animals

  • Why use nonhuman animals?

    • Some questions are dangerous or impractical with humans; easier control; shorter lifespans aid long-term studies; simpler behavior aids observation.

  • Oversight and welfare

    • Institutions use Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) to ensure humane treatment.

  • Minimizing harm

    • Avoid unnecessary pain; use anesthesia for surgery; humane euthanasia if required.

  • Scope of use

    • Nonhuman animals are used in about 7% of psychological studies.

Summary: Core Takeaways

  • Psychology blends descriptive and experimental approaches to understand behavior and mental processes.

  • Multiple perspectives provide a comprehensive view; nonetheless, replication and methodological rigor are crucial.

  • Ethical guidelines govern studies with humans and animals to protect welfare and ensure scientific integrity.

  • Critical thinking is essential to evaluate claims, especially in media and everyday life; distinguish empirical evidence from beliefs; understand correlation vs causation; and recognize the importance of replication.

  • The scientific method in psychology integrates observation, hypothesis testing, rigorous design, and transparent reporting to advance knowledge.