Global Trade, Nomadic Empires, and Medieval European Development

The Transformation of Sub-Saharan Africa and the Atlantic Slave Trade

• Establishment of Global Trade Networks:

  • The early modern period saw the emergence of global trade networks that deeply changed sub-Saharan Africa.

  • European vessels were drawn to the West African coast by commercial opportunities, shifting the focus of West African leaders toward the Atlantic.

  • While maritime trade did not terminate the trans-Saharan caravan trade linking Africa to the Mediterranean, it promoted prosperous port cities and powerful coastal kingdoms that looked toward the ocean rather than the desert.

  • Central and South Africa: European merchants provided the first major opportunities for long-distance trade, as Muslim merchants had previously not ventured to these regions in large numbers.

• The Atlantic Slave Trade:

  • Scale and Scope: Operates on a vastly larger scale than the trans-Saharan slave trade. Between the 15th and 19th centuries, it siphoned millions of people from their societies.

  • Societal Impact: Provoked turmoil due to communities raiding others for captives to sell to slave traders.

  • Destinations: The vast majority of enslaved Africans were sent to the Caribbean or the Americas.

  • Labor: Most worked on plantations for cash crops (export), with others as domestic servants, miners, or laborers.

  • African Diaspora: This constituted the largest forced migration in history before the 19th century. Enslaved people were unable to reconstitute African societies and were not permitted to join Euro-American society, leading to hybrid societies that blended African traditions with European and American influences.

• Regional Dynamics and Key Figures:

  • Kongo: King Afonso I ($1506-1542$) welcomed Portuguese trade, but the demand for slaves led to internal conflict and a loss of control over raids, eventually contributing to the collapse of the kingdom.

  • Ndongo: Faced pressure from the Portuguese. Queen Nzinga ($1623-1663$) resisted Portuguese dominance and formed an alliance with the Dutch. Angola eventually became the first European colony in Africa.

  • Songhay Empire ($1464-1591$): Traded gold, salt, and slaves. Notable reign of Sunni Ali ($1464-1493$). Underwent Islamic reform movements like the Fulani jihads, which sought to return to a more orthodox Islam.

  • Asante and Dahomey: Rose as powerful military states built on the proceeds of the slave trade.

• Chronology of African History:

  • $1441$: Beginning of the Portuguese slave trade.

  • $1464-1493$: Reign of Sunni Ali.

  • $1464-1591$: Songhay Empire.

  • $1506-1542$: Reign of King Afonso I of Kongo.

  • $1623-1663$: Reign of Queen Nzinga of Ndongo.

  • $1706$: Execution of Dona Beatriz.

  • $1745-1797$: Life of Olaudah Equiano.

  • $1793-1804$: Haitian revolution.

  • $1807$: End of the British slave trade.

  • $1865$: Abolition of slavery in the United States.

Long-Distance Trade and Cross-Cultural Exchange ($500-1500\,C.E.$)

• Cultural Exchange and Tech Diffusion:

  • Marco Polo: Traveled to the Yuan dynasty; his accounts stimulated European interest in Asia.

  • Ibn Battuta: Traveled throughout the Dar al-Islam, reinforcing Islamic connections.

  • Rabban Sauma: Traveled to Europe, demonstrating the connection of the Mongol world to the West.

  • Technology: Spread of gunpowder and printing across Eurasia.

• The Bubonic Plague:

  • Origin: Central Asia, spreading west via trade routes.

  • Consequences: Massive population declines in China, the Islamic world, and Europe.

  • Social Effects: Broken social order, peasant revolts, and severe labor shortages.

  • Economic Effects: Increase in wages and decrease in agricultural output.

  • Political Effects: Disruption of government authority and a contribution to the decline of the Mongol empire.

• European Recovery Post-Crisis:

  • States began to centralize power and build political authority.

  • France: Emerged stronger after the Hundred Years' War.

  • Spain: Consolidated and united kingdoms, completing the Reconquista.

  • Italy: Prospered through Mediterranean trade, serving as a cultural hub.

  • New Monarchs: Created more efficient governments and armies, reducing the power of feudal lords and laying the foundation for sea expansion.

Nomadic Empires: Turks and Mongols ($11th-15th\,Centuries$)

• Turkish Expansion:

  • Migrated to Persia, Anatolia, and India.

  • Seljuk Turks: Entered Persia to protect the Abbasids and took control of Baghdad, ruling as Sultans.

  • Battle of Manzikert ($1071$): Defeated the Byzantine Empire, a major turning point.

  • Delhi Sultanate: Introduced Islam, Persian culture, and Turkic military tactics to India in the 13th century.

• The Mongol Empire:

  • Chinggis Khan ($1206-1227$): Launched campaigns across Central Asia and Persia; created the largest land empire in history stretching from Korea to Hungary.

  • Military Strategy: Highly effective nomadic warfare using mobility, cavalry, compound bows, and surprise attacks. Adapted technology (like siege engines) from conquered peoples.

  • Governance: Used an imperial strategy of hiring foreigners for government positions. Allowed cultural tolerance and protected trade routes.

  • Fragmentation: Broke into competing khanates: Yuan dynasty (China), Ilkhanate (Persia), Golden Horde (Russia), and Chagatai (Central Asia).

  • Consequences: Slaughtered urban populations and destroyed agricultural lands, but also fostered unprecedented cross-cultural communication and tech spread (but also the plague).

• Chronology of Nomadic Empires:

  • $1055$: Tughril Beg named sultan.

  • $1071$: Battle of Manzikert.

  • $1206-1227$: Reign of Chinggis Khan.

  • $1211-1234$: Mongol conquest of northern China.

  • $1219-1221$: Mongol conquest of Persia.

  • $1237-1241$: Mongol conquest of Russia.

  • $1258$: Mongol capture of Baghdad.

Medieval Europe ($500-1000\,C.E.$)

• Overview:

  • The period between $500$ and $1500\,C.E.$ is known as the "medieval period" or "middle ages."

  • Early medieval Europe ($500-1000\,C.E.$) was recovery phase from the problems of the late Roman Empire: epidemics, population decline, economic contraction, and Germanic invasions.

• The Byzantine Empire:

  • Direct continuation of the Roman Empire in the East. Inherited the empire's most prosperous regions.

  • Centralized imperial state dominated the eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea regions until the 11th century.

  • Center of manufacturing and highly productive trade. Developed Eastern Orthodoxy, which spread into Russia.

• Western Europe:

  • Germanic successor states dismantled the western Roman Empire.

  • Charlemagne: Attempted to unify Western Europe and establish a western counterpart to Byzantium, but the empire dissolved into decentralized government and regional rule after his death.

  • Economic Structure: Shaped by feudalism, manorialism, and serfdom. Agricultural productivity eventually boosted recovery.

  • Vikings: Traders, raiders, and explorers whose activities encouraged economic growth and established new trade centers.

• Chronology:

  • $313-337$: Reign of Constantine.

  • $329-379$: Life of St. Basil of Caesarea.

  • $476$: Collapse of the Western Roman Empire.

Maritime Exploration and Trade-Post Empires

• Maritime Technology:

  • Innovation derived from Asia and the Dar al-Islam enabled European exploration.

  • Lateen Sails: Provided maneuverability.

  • Magnetic Compass & Astrolabes: Used for navigation.

  • Volta do Mar: The mastery of monsoon and prevailing winds.

• Exploration and Colonization:

  • Portuguese: Goal was to control trade routes. Afonso d'Alboquerque led campaigns to dominate the Indian Ocean trade.

  • Joint-Stock Companies: Financed exploration for the Dutch, English, and French.

  • Christopher Columbus: Sailed west to the Caribbean, leading to the Columbian Exchange (diseases, crops, animals).

  • Ferdinand Magellan: First to circumnavigate the globe.

  • Manila Galleons: System linking Asia, the Americas, and Europe.

Economic and Social Systems in the Americas

• Economic Drivers:

  • Silver and Sugar were the primary drivers of exploration and exploitation.

  • Silver: Potosí silver mine served as a global hub. Funded Spain's demand for Chinese luxury goods but caused inflation.

  • Sugar: Expansion required intense labor. The Engenho system was a complex sugar mill combining agriculture and processing. High mortality rates led to the massive import of African slaves.

• Colonial Societies:

  • Settler Patterns:

    • Spanish and Portuguese: Euro-settlers formed a ruling elite.

    • British and French: Settled with whole families migrating.

  • Racial Hierarchy: Strict levels including Peninsulares (born in Europe), Criollos (born in Americas of Euro ancestry), and Mestizos (mixed ancestry).

  • Religious Blending: Spanish and Portuguese missionaries built churches and missions. Native beliefs often merged with Catholicism to create hybrid practices.

The Renaissance and Cultural Transformation

• Key Characteristics:

  • A cultural rebirth emphasizing Greco-Roman learning.

  • Humanism: Focused on human potential; studied grammar, poetry, history, and ancient texts.

  • Individualism: A shift toward scientific inquiry and exploration.

  • Art: Focused on realism, human anatomy, and emotion.

Cross-Cultural Interactions Post-1500

• Eurasian and Global Links:

  • Russian Adventurers: Built a massive Eurasian empire and reached the Pacific Ocean.

  • Ming Dynasty (China): Sponsored seven massive maritime expeditions in the early 15th century (visited the Indian Ocean basin). State-sponsored expeditions ended after $1435$.

  • Ottoman Empire: Expanded into the Indian Ocean after the conquest of Egypt in $1517$. Established presence through merchant and military vessels as far as China.

  • Captain Cook: His voyages during the Enlightenment explored the Pacific and Australia, claiming land for Britain and traveling with naturalists to document the world.