Comprehensive Guide to Argumentative Texts

Definition and Fundamental Purpose of Argumentative Texts

• General Definition: Argumentative texts are defined as those whose primary purpose is to defend an idea or an opinion by providing reasons.
• Core Objective: The central goal is to convince others of a specific point of view or proposition.
• Professional Importance: Argumentation is vital across various professions. In politics, the mastery of arguments is considered "imprescindible" (indispensable) for crafting speeches and campaigns. This skill allows politicians to persuade voters to support them or approve their management in public office.
• RAE Definition: According to the Royal Spanish Academy (RAE), an argument is a "Razonamiento que se emplea para probar o demostrar una proposición, o bien para convencer a alguien de aquello que se afirma o se niega" (Reasoning used to prove or demonstrate a proposition, or to convince someone of what is affirmed or denied).
• Substantive Nature: An argument is an utterance that expresses a viewpoint with a central idea—either in favor of or against something—intended to be supported or justified to provide confidence to a specific recipient.
• Subjectivity and Persuasion: Argumentation offers the subjective vision of an emitter regarding a topic. Its purpose is to influence the "other" and convince them of the validity of the reasoning.
• Ethical Constraints: The purpose of persuasion must be exercised from an ethical and professional perspective. The rights of one or more persons must not be violated to achieve personal goals.
• Linguistic Function: The conative or appellative function of language predominates in these texts, whether they are oral or written.

Essential Elements of Argumentation

Three distinct elements are identified in argumentative texts:

• The Theme or Object: The specific topic about which the argumentation is centered.
• The Thesis: This is the main idea around which the entire text is organized. It represents the point of view defended by the author.     * Structure Based on Thesis Location:         * Deductive: The thesis is presented first, followed by the supporting arguments. It moves from the general (the thesis) to the particular (facts, evidence, etc.).         * Inductive: Specific data and facts appear first, from which a thesis is derived. It moves from the particular to the general.
• The Arguments: The set of reasons the author uses to convince the recipient of the thesis. Every argument has a structure consisting of two essential parts:     * Premise: The statement through which reasons are proposed.         * Example 1: "Estudiar en el exterior resulta costoso" (Studying abroad is expensive).         * Example 2: "No cuento con los recursos" (I do not have the resources).     * Conclusion: The statement made in favor of the provided reasons.         * Example: "Decidí no inscribirme en el posgrado" (I decided not to enroll in the postgraduate program).

Detailed Classification of Argument Types

Arguments are categorized according to several criteria:

According to the Type of Reasoning Utilized

• Deductive Arguments: Reasoning starts from premises that are generalizations to reach a conclusion explaining a particular case.     * Example: If all plants cannot move and the eucalyptus is a plant, then the eucalyptus cannot move.
• Inductive Arguments: Reasoning starts from observations of particular cases to extract a conclusion that serves as a generalisation.     * Example: In autumn the eucalyptus has yellow leaves; in autumn the oak has yellow leaves; therefore, in autumn all trees have yellow leaves.
• Abductive Arguments: Reasoning starts from premises referring to a fact from which a conclusion is derived.     * Example: Today it is raining; on rainy days I do not go to the park; therefore, today I will not go to the park.

According to the Content of the Premises

• Arguments of Authority: The reasoning is justified with quotes, expert commentary, and testimonies.     * Example: According to epidemiology specialists, the use of masks reduces the chances of $COVID-19$ infection.
• Arguments of Fact: Reasoning is justified with evidence from previously conducted research or studies.     * Example: According to a survey, $92\%$ of consumers prefer soda and the remaining $8\%$ prefer water; therefore, the majority of people prefer soda.
• Arguments of Morality: Universal moral values are used to justify an idea.     * Example: All people have the right to choose their representatives in a democratic system; therefore, all citizens of this country have the right to vote.
• Arguments of Tradition: An idea is justified by referencing customs or traditions.     * Example: Adults work to obtain a salary; therefore, young people must prepare to find a job that provides a good salary.
• Probabilistic Arguments: Justification is based on quantitative or qualitative probability.     * Example: $30\%$ of university students are pursuing social careers.
• Arguments of Personal Experience: Justification is based on the author's own life experiences.     * Example: I like coffee very much; therefore, coffee is delicious.
• Aesthetic Arguments: Justification refers to whether something is beautiful, ugly, pleasant, or unpleasant.     * Example: That house must be poorly built because it is very ugly.

According to the Objective

Arguments are divided into two macro-groups:

• Logical Arguments: Use rational logic to verify an idea. The conclusion is a rational and logical consequence of the premises.     * Exemplification: Using examples to justify an idea. (e.g., packaged foods contain trans fats like cookies, snacks, and desserts).     * Generalization: Starting from particular cases to establish a generalization. (e.g., roses, jasmine, and sunflowers smell good; therefore, all flowers smell good).     * Analogy: Inferring a common characteristic because two or more things share other traits. (e.g., all books I have read by this author are good; therefore, the new book must be good).     * Signs: Considering one event as a sign that provides information about another event. (e.g., humidity always precedes rain; it is humid today, so it will rain).
• Affective Arguments: Used to persuade the reader via emotional content.     * Example: Supporting an economic measure for students by invoking the shared knowledge of how important a degree is.

According to the Degree of Persuasion

• Pertinent Arguments: Directly related to the idea being transmitted.     * Example: This computer is the best I've had, so probably all computers of this brand are good.
• Valid Arguments: Both logical and pertinent.     * Example: If oak tables are resistant, all furniture made of oak will be resistant.
• Irrefutable Arguments: Cannot be false because they use scientific or demonstrable evidence.     * Example: Earth is a planet inhabited by animals and plants.

According to the Emitter's Posture

• Arguments In Favor of an Idea: Used to justify a concept (e.g., defending in-person education due to the necessity of social exchange).
• Arguments Against an Idea: Used to refute ideas.     * Example: Refuting the claim that more people refuse vaccines by citing statistics showing $93\%$ of the population has a complete vaccination schedule.

Scopes and Application Domains

Argumentative texts appear in various social and professional spheres:

• Media: Found in newspapers (press) and advertising.
• Academic Sphere: Includes memoirs, monographs, some encyclopedias, outreach texts, and scientific or humanistic writings.
• Social Sphere: Found in legal texts, such as judicial rulings (sentencias).

The Appellative Function and Linguistic Resources

In these texts, the emitter seeks to generate an effect in the receptor: agreement and action. The predominant function is the conative or appellative function, which centers on the receiver.

Linguistic and Rhetorical Resources

• Connotative terms
• Valorative adjectives
• Imperative mode
• Interrogative structures
• Affective or emotional elements

Structure and Language of Argumentative Texts

standard Structure

1. Introduction: Presentation of the topic.
2. Argumentation: Exposure of reasons for a specific posture and the explicit opinion on the topic.
3. Conclusion: Ratification of the opinion or thesis, synthesis of the arguments, and a logical closing.

Habitual Linguistic Resources

• Connectors and Links: Discourse markers used to organize ideas:     * Ordering: "por una parte" (on one hand), "en primer lugar" (firstly), "en segundo lugar" (secondly).     * Oppositive: "pero" (but), "aunque" (although), "no obstante" (nevertheless).     * Causative: "porque" (because).     * Consecutive: "pues" (well/since), "entonces" (then).     * Reinforcement: "evidentemente" (evidently), "como se puede ver" (as can be seen).
• Citations: Mentioning the ideas of expert authors to lend validity to the arguments.
• Examples and Comparisons: Establishing relationships between the point to be proven and already demonstrated facts.

Academic Context (Course Details)

• Grade Level: 10th Grade (Décimo).
• Duration: $3\text{ weeks}$.
• Teaching Staff: Leidy Johana Molina Neira.
• Learning Goals:     * Comprehend diverse text types with a critical attitude.     * Evaluate written texts considering content plans, sense relations, and discursive strategies.     * Identify concepts, structure, classes, and characteristics of argumentative texts through reading.