Middle and Late Childhood: Learning Disabilities, Moral Development, and Peer Relationships

Learning Outcomes
  • Identify common disabilities in childhood.
  • Describe Erikson’s fourth stage of industry vs. inferiority.
  • Explain Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.
  • Describe the importance of peers, stages of friendships, peer acceptance, and consequences of peer acceptance.
  • Describe bullying, cyberbullying, and the consequences of bullying.
  • Explain the consequences of divorce on children.
Cooperation and Competition
  • Cultural Context: In some non-Anglo cultures, questions are used to gain information, leading to misinterpretation by students who may feel shamed.
  • Impact of Activities: Competitive activities (e.g., "Let’s see who finishes the math sheet first") can hinder cooperative relationships among students and between students and teachers.
Learning Disabilities in Childhood
  • Definition: A Learning Disability (LD) specifically impairs academic learning and significantly affects academic performance.
  • Common Areas Affected:
    • Reading
    • Writing
    • Listening
    • Speaking
    • Mathematics
  • Distinctions: Learning problems tied to physical, sensory, or motor issues, or difficulties related to a second language are not considered LD.
  • Statistics: 1 in 5 children in the U.S. faces learning and attention issues, with a significant number not receiving necessary accommodations.
Types of Learning Disabilities

  1. Dyslexia:

    • Difficulty with reading, phonological processing, and letter-sound associations.
    • Neurological issues affecting reading capabilities.
    • Treatment involves tailored teaching methods.

  2. Dysgraphia:

    • Writing difficulties, often linked to dyslexia.
    • Types of dysgraphia:
      • Phonological Dysgraphia: Trouble spelling phonetically.
      • Orthographic Dysgraphia: Can spell regular words but struggles with irregular ones.

  3. Dyscalculia:

    • Difficulty in mathematics, impacting working memory and number system knowledge.

  4. ADHD (Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder):

    • Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
    • Symptoms include disorganization, forgetfulness, and excessive movement.
Etiology and Prevalence of ADHD
  • Genetics: Family studies indicate a significant genetic role.
  • Neurotransmitters: Reduced dopamine activity in the brain is observed in ADHD individuals.
  • Environmental Factors: Links to prenatal nicotine exposure and low birth weight.
  • Treatment Options: Include behavioral interventions, therapy, and medications like methylphenidate (Ritalin).
Erikson’s Fourth Stage: Industry vs. Inferiority
  • Children seek accomplishments in tasks, leading to a sense of competence or inferiority based on their successes.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
  • Overview: Moral reasoning progresses through stages, identified by posing dilemmas (e.g., Heinz’s dilemma).

  1. Level 1 (Preconventional): Focused on self-interest and punishment.

    • Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation.
    • Stage 2: Self-interest orientation.

  2. Level 2 (Conventional): Morality defined by societal expectations.

    • Stage 3: Interpersonal accord and harmony.
    • Stage 4: Authority and social order maintaining orientation.

  3. Level 3 (Postconventional): Morality grounded in personal ethics.

    • Stage 5: Social contract orientation.
    • Stage 6: Universal ethical principles.
Importance of Peers and Friendship Stages
  • Bigelow and La Gaipa's Stages of Friendship:
    • Stage 1: Reward-cost - Focus on mutual activities.
    • Stage 2: Normative expectations - Emphasis on kindness and sharing.
    • Stage 3: Empathy and understanding - Valuing loyalty and intimacy.
Bullying and Cyberbullying
  • Definitions: Unwanted aggressive behavior among children with a power imbalance.
    • Types: Physical, verbal, social/relational, and cyberbullying.
  • Consequences for Victims: Higher risk of academic failure, substance use, and lower self-esteem.
Consequences of Divorce on Children
  • Outcomes depend heavily on parental adjustment post-divorce.
  • Factors increasing externalizing behaviors include:
    • Financial instability.
    • Lack of support and resources.
    • Child's temperament and support systems inspire better post-divorce adjustment.