Chapter 9: Behaviorism: Antecedent Influences

Chapter 9: Behaviorism: Antecedent Influences

9.1 Clever Hans: The Wonder Horse

• Clever Hans was a renowned horse in psychology, recognized for his purportedly extraordinary intelligence in the early 1900s in Europe and the U.S.

• Demonstrations:

  • Hans answered questions by tapping his hoof or nodding.

• Skepticism:

  • Some questioned the legitimacy of Hans's abilities, suspecting trickery.

  • A psychologist, Oskar Pfungst, revealed Hans responded to unconscious cues from questioners rather than answering based on knowledge.

9.2 Evolution of Behaviorism

• Transition in Psychology:

  • Post-Wundt era psychology saw a move from introspection and mental elements to more objective approaches.

• Functional Psychology:

  • Focused on adapting and modifying Wundt's original ideas rather than overthrowing them.

  • Functionalists didn't explicitly reject all previous ideas but reshaped the psychological landscape.

  • Observable Behavior:

    • Emphasized measurable and observable actions, rejecting concepts of consciousness, sensations, and mental imagery.

  • Positivism:

    • The belief that valid knowledge comes from observable facts, influenced by philosophers like Auguste Comte.

  • Animal Psychology's Role:

    • Behaviorism was shaped by studies of animal behavior, leading to a view of humans as mechanistic entities, devoid of a separate consciousness.

9.2.1 The Rise of Behaviorism

• John B. Watson's Revolution:

  • In 1913, Watson called for a complete break from prior psychological methodologies, focusing solely on observable behaviors.

  • Rejected all mentalistic terms (e.g., sensation, consciousness) as irrelevant to observable behavior.

  • Integrated ideas from objectivism, animal psychology, and functionalism.

9.3 Influence of Animal Psychology and Key Figures

9.3.1 Jacques Loeb (1859–1924)

• Developed tropism theory, emphasizing involuntary movements without requiring consciousness.

• Advocated for a more mechanistic view of animal behavior, though he acknowledged associative memory in some higher animals.

• Developed the concept of tropism: involuntary and automatic responses to stimuli.

• Argued that animal behavior is driven by stimuli, eliminating the need for explanations based on consciousness.

• Recognized associative memory as evidence of consciousness in higher animals, indicating a connection between stimuli and learned responses

• Advances in Animal Psychology

  • Experimental Focus:

    • Robert Yerkes and others established experimental animal psychology, enhancing the study of comparative psychology.

    • Willard S. Small introduced the rat maze as a standard method for studying learning.

  • Consciousness Debate:

    • Researchers like Small and Watson initially used mentalistic terms in their studies, reflecting ongoing interest in animal consciousness.

    • Clever Hans Case Study

      • Investigation:

        • Oskar Pfungst conducted experiments showing Hans responded to subtle cues from questioners, revealing conditioning rather than genuine intelligence.

      • Impact:

        • Pfungst’s findings highlighted the importance of an experimental approach in studying animal behavior.

        • The Clever Hans case: emphasized conditioning as a key mechanism in learning

9.3.2 Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949)

Significance: Major figure in animal psychology, known for developing a mechanistic, objective learning theory focused on overt behavior.

• Known for Connectionism:

  • Studied learning processes through observable behaviors.

  • Focused on stimulus-response connections rather than introspectively analyzed mental processes.

  • analyzing the connections between situations and responses.

  • Focused on objectively verifiable situations rather than abstract ideas.

  • Retained some references to mental processes, though increasingly objective.

• Key Concepts

  • Law of Effect (1898):

    • Behaviors that produce satisfaction in a situation are more likely to recur; those producing discomfort are less likely.

    • Law of Exercise (or Use and Disuse):

      • Repeated responses strengthen associations, while disuse weakens them. (more an act or response is used in a given situation, the more strongly the act becomes associated with that situation.)

  • Trial-and-Error Learning:

    • Learning occurs through random behaviors leading to success, which become more frequent with reinforcement.

    Experimental Methods

    • Puzzle Boxes:

      • Designed for cats to escape by manipulating latches, tracking learning through quantitative measures (e.g., time taken, number of incorrect responses).

    • Data Collection:

      • Recorded learning progress by noting decreased wrong behaviors and reduced escape time.

9.3.3 Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov (1849–1936)

• Mechanistic View: Considered animals (including humans) as complex machines, promoting a reductionist approach to psychology.

• Known for his research on Conditioned Reflexes:

  • Conducted experiments demonstrating learning through associations (e.g., dogs salivating at the sound of a bell predicting food).

  • Developed a rigorous, objective methodology for studying animal behavior without relying on internal mental states.

  • Differentiated between innate (unconditioned) reflexes and learned (conditioned) reflexes.

  • Used a variety of stimuli (buzzers, lights, etc.) to elicit salivary responses.

  • Key Concepts

    • Unconditioned Reflex: Innate response (e.g., salivating when food is placed in mouth).

    • Conditioned Reflex: Learned response (e.g., salivating at the sight of food).

    • Experimental Methodology: Rigorous controls and systematic observations to ensure valid results.

9.4 Advancements in Objective Psychology

9.4.1 E. B. Twitmyer (1873–1943)

• Independently discovered reflex conditioning linked to stimuli but was overlooked in favor of Pavlov.

• Emphasized the significance of conditioned reflexes in learning processes.

• Knee-Jerk Reflex: Presented research on conditioned reflexes in 1904, observing responses to stimuli beyond the original (knee tap).

9.4.2 Vladimir M. Bekhterev (1857–1927)

• Focused on Associated Reflexes, relating Pavlov's theories of condition to motor reflexes.

• Argued for an objective view of psychology, distancing from subjective interpretations of behavior.

• Motor Conditioning: Studied associated reflexes, applying Pavlov's ideas to motor responses (e.g., finger withdrawal from shock).

• Objective Psychology: Advocated for an objective approach to psychology, moving away from mentalistic terms.

9.5 The Influence of Functional Psychology on Behaviorism

• Functionalists like Cattell called for an objective approach to psychology, leading to the rejection of introspection as a valid method of study.

• Watson’s behaviorism arose as a culmination of a pre-existing movement towards behavior-focused and scientifically rigorous psychology.