Chapter 8: Language Acquisition

Theories of Language Acquisition

• The innateness Hypothesis- asserts that humans are genetically predisposed to acquire and use language
• Linguistic universals- basic features shared by all languages
• Universal grammar- the theoretically inborn set of structural characteristics shared by all languages
• Critical Period- a period of time in an individual’s life during which a behavior must be acquired
    * the acquisition will fail if it is attempted before or after the critical period
• Homesign gestures- communicative gestures that are invented by deaf children and the people with whom they routinely interact in cases where a signed language is not made available
• Imitation Theory- claims that children learn language by listening to the speech around them and reproducing what they hear
    * Suggests that language acquisition consists of @@memorizing words and sentences@@
    * Doesn’t explain how children make grammar mistakes such as “hitted” or “goed,” nor does it explain how new sentences are produced and understood
• Reinforcement theory- asserts that children learn to speak like adults because they are praised/ rewarded for using the right forms and are corrected when using wrong forms
• Active construction of a grammar theory- states that children actually invent the rules of grammar themselves
    * Assumes that the ability to develop rules is @@innate@@
    * @@Mistakes are expected to occur@@ and follow non-random patterns
• Connectionist theories- assume that children learn language by creating neural connections in the brain
    * These connections are formed through exposure to language and by using language
• Social interaction theory- assumes that children acquire language through social interaction, with older children and adults in particular
    * Children prompt their parents to supply them with the appropriate language experience they need
    * Children must develop rules and they have a predisposition to learn language

First Language Acquisition: The Acquisition of Speech Sounds and Phonology

• @@Infants@@ must be able to @@identify and perceive sounds@@ before being able to produce spoken language
    * The perception abilities of infants are studied through high amplitude sucking and the conditioned head-turn procedure
    * By the age of four months, infants can distinguish between the production of some vowels
• Infants can @@produce sounds from birth@@, and within a @@few weeks@@ begins producing sequences of @@vowel-like sounds@@
• Babies learn articulatory gestures in order to make particular sounds
• At the age of 4-6 months, a child begins to babble
    * Canonical babbling- continual repetition of syllables that helps a child practice a sequence of consonant and vowel sounds; begins at the age of 7-10 months
    * Variegated babbling- the non-repeated stringing together of syllables that comes after canonical babbling

First-Language Acquisition: The Acquisition of Morphology, Syntax, and Word Meaning

• The one-word stage- the child produces single words in isolation, usually naming people, objects, pets, and other familiar and important parts of his or her environment
    * Holophrastic stage- the level of development in which a child is able to produce single words that can be used for naming, commenting, requesting, and so on
• The two-word stage- the child produces and adopts a consistent set of word orders that convey an important part of the meaning of their utterances
    * Speech usually lacks function morphemes and function words
• Later developed skills include plurals, negatives, and interrogatives
• Complexive Concepts- when a child creates a set of objects that do not have any particular unifying characteristic
• Overextensions- when a child extends the range of a word’s meaning beyond that typically used by adults
• Underextensions- the application of a word to a smaller set of objects than is appropriate for mature adult speech

How Adults Talk to Young Children

• Child-directed speech- speech directed at children
• Adults have to make sure that children realize that @@an utterance is being addressed to them and not someone else@@
• Once an adult has a child’s attention, they must choose concepts that @@maximize the child’s chances of understanding@@ what is being said
• Adults must choose a @@particular style of speaking@@ that they think will be @@most beneficial to the child@@
• Attention getters- names and exclamations that tell children which utterances are directed at them
• Attention holders- methods of keeping a child engaged in what the speaker is saying
• “Here and Now” conversation- making running commentaries on what children do, either anticipating their actions or describing what just happened
• “Taking Turns” conversations- taking turns being the listener and hearer, responding to both spoken and non-spoken actions taken by children and infants
• “Making Corrections” conversations- adults make sure the child’s contribution is correct
• The way adults speak to children:
    * Slowed down speech
    * short, simple sentences
    * Higher pitch of voice
    * Frequent repetitions

Bilingual Language Acquisition

• Simultaneous bilingualism- learning more than one language from birth
• Sequential bilingualism- learning a second language as a young child
• Second-language acquisition- learning a second language later in life
    * Fossilization- non-native forms, as part of either the morpho-syntax or pronunciation, can become fixed and not change
    * Transfer- when a speaker’s native language also plays a role in second-language acquisition because having learned one language influences the subsequent learning of another language
• Language mixing- using more than one language in conversation or even within a phrase