Comprehensive Study Notes on Archaeology and Archaeological Methods

Archaeology Overview

Introduction to Archaeology

  • Archaeology begins today!

  • Course: ANTH 105: Human Evolution

    • Offered every semester

    • Fulfills the understanding of the past & analyzing the natural world.

Key Course Questions

  • What makes us human?

  • How do we share so much DNA yet look different?

  • Are humans still evolving?

Test Results

  • Five students scored 50 points.

  • One student scored 9 points.

  • Average score was 36 points.

  • Information on re-tests to follow.

  • No discussions scheduled for today or Friday.

Four Fields of Anthropology

  • Cultural Anthropology: Study of cultures and societies, including living cultures and ethnographies.

  • Archaeology: Study of past societies and their cultures through material remains.

  • Linguistic Anthropology: Study of language structure, evolution, and its social/cultural contexts.

  • Physical Anthropology: Also known as biological anthropology, studies human evolution and variation.

  • At UIC, three of these fields are taught.

Transition to Archaeology

  • Focus will shift to archaeology for the next five weeks.

  • Personal research spans the Incas (AD 1000-1500), primarily around Machu Picchu in Peru.

  • Research supported by numerous organizations including National Geographic and UIC.

What is Archaeology?

  • Definition:

    • Origin: From Greek, "archaeo-" meaning "ancient" and "logos" meaning "study".

    • Study of the human past through material evidence, known as the "archaeological record".

    • Goal: Reconstruct and interpret past cultures and cultural changes using physical remains and other resources.

  • Distinct from History:

    • Archaeologists study material remains, while historians focus on written records.

    • Archaeologists can explore any past society; historians are limited to those that produced written documents.

Misconceptions About Archaeology

  • Not focused on fossils or dinosaurs.

  • Emphasis on thinking about the things found rather than merely finding objects.

Local vs. Big Questions in Archaeology

  • Archaeology is often about local histories (specific events in time and space).

  • However, university-level archaeology tackles broader questions:

    • Development of states

    • Societal changes through time

    • Human-environment interactions

    • Ancient migrations and technology

    • Past behaviors, identities, and religions.

Artifacts in Archaeology

  • Common perceptions involve artifacts, such as pots and stone tools.

  • While artifacts are crucial, archaeology extends beyond these objects to larger, complex datasets necessary for understanding historical contexts.

Context in Archaeology

  • Definition of Context: Refers to where and how an artifact was used, including its physical location, surrounding soil, and nearby artifacts.

  • Importance of context:

    • Finding artifacts in their original settings provides richer information.

    • Removal from context complicates understanding.

    • Archaeological sites are likened to crime scenes; disturbed evidence makes interpretation harder.

Ethical Concerns with Art Markets

  • Art markets encourage looting, which destroys context and ultimately erodes history.

  • Example of auction prices highlighting the problem of looted artifacts:

    • Price Realized: $5,040 (Estimate: $5,500 - $7,500)

    • Price Realized: $2,640 (Estimate: $1,500 - $1,800)

  • Looted artifacts often derived from burials, leading to a loss of cultural context and historical information.

What Archaeologists Do

  • Surveying: Mapping the locations of sites to document past human activity.

  • Excavating: Detailed exploration of sites to reveal artifacts in context, striving to recover materials without destroying their surrounding context.

  • Lab Work: Extensive analysis and reconstruction of recovered artifacts.

  • Publishing: Presentation of findings to enhance collective understanding of the past.

What Archaeologists Do Not Do

  • Sell artifacts or excavate without proper permissions.

  • Keep found objects; they are returned to local authorities post-project.

  • Focus on two primary research methods - surveying and excavation.

Fieldwork in Archaeology

  • Surveys: Walking across areas to document artifacts and sites, leading to large regional maps.

    • Example: Research in Cuzco aims to analyze changes in settlement patterns between AD 1000 and AD 1300.

  • Technological Aids:

    • Utilization of aerial and satellite imagery (e.g., Google Earth) for site discovery.

    • Modern techniques like LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) streamline site discovery.

  • Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR): Instrument used for locating subsurface structures.

Excavation Techniques

  • Types of Excavations:

    • Vertical Excavation: Investigates different time periods to understand chronological and cultural changes with an emphasis on stratigraphy.

    • Horizontal Excavation: Focuses on a single time period to explore site function and space utilization.

  • Archaeologists must choose excavation types based on specific research questions.

Dating Methods in Archaeology

  • Relative Dating: Based on stratigraphy and the law of superposition, which posits that deeper artifacts are older than those above them.

  • Absolute Dating: Methods include:

    • Radiocarbon Dating:

    • Measures the decay of Carbon-14 to Nitrogen-14.

    • Effective for organic materials less than 30,000 years old.

    • Not suitable for inorganic materials like rocks and fossils.

    • Dendrochronology: Tree-ring dating for chronological information.

Key Terminology Associated with Archaeology

  • Key Terms:

    • Archaeology

    • Context

    • Relative Dating

    • Stratigraphy

    • Radiocarbon Dating

    • Dendrochronology

    • Survey

    • Excavation (Vertical and Horizontal)

    • Art and Archaeology Market

Archaeological Sites: Components

  • Three Main Components:

    1. Artifacts: Objects modified by human action.

    2. Ecofacts: Natural items humans used or affected (e.g., animal and plant remains).

    3. Features: Immovable objects that help reveal site context.

Formation of Archaeological Sites

  • History of a site involves understanding how it became an archaeological site.

  • Examples:

    • Burials: Common but complex, requiring skills to interpret biological data.

    • Trash Middens: Sites where garbage was dumped, providing insights into daily life.

    • Conditions Affecting Preservation: Factors like extreme cold, wetness, or dryness contribute positively to the preservation of artifacts and ecofacts.

Conclusion on Survey and Excavation

  • Comparative Analysis: Regional surveys provide wide-ranging insights with limited depth, while excavations yield detailed information but at higher costs. Both approaches are fundamental for comprehensive archaeological research.