Self-Understanding and the Economic Self

Self-Understanding

Questions to Ponder
- How do people perceive their physical self?
- How do people form their body image?
- What is the significance of beauty?
Self-Understanding Definition: According to Santrock (2014), it is the individual's cognitive representation of the self, consisting of the substance and content of self-conceptions.
The development of self-understanding in adolescence evolves from simple to complex, involving various aspects of the self.
It differs from a child's understanding and changes throughout life.

Growing Up

Children's interests change as they age, accompanied by bodily changes.
Parents should respect teenagers' privacy, provide space for growth, and offer support by listening.

Physical Self

Definition: The concrete dimensions of the body, directly observable and examinable.
Includes physical characteristics like facial features, hairstyle, clothes, and figure.

Importance of the Body

Erik Erikson: Believed the body's physical and intellectual skills are a basis for competence and managing life's demands.
William James: Considered the body the initial source of sensation and necessary for personality.

Adolescence

Transition period from 10-12 years to 18-22 years (Santrock, 2016).
The World Health Organization defines adolescents as 10-19 years old.
Stages of Adolescence (healthy children.org):
- Early adolescence: 11 to 14 years old.
- Middle adolescence: 15 to 17 years old.
- Late adolescence: 18 to 21 years old.
Youth in Nation-Building Act (1994) in the Philippines: Defined youth as 15-30 years old.

Puberty

Definition (Santrock, 2016): A brain-neuroendocrine process primarily in early adolescence that triggers rapid physical changes.
Puberty ends before the end of adolescence.
Girls experience menarche (first menstrual flow) earlier than boys.
Boys experience spermarche or semenarche (first ejaculation or nocturnal emission) two to three years later.
The pituitary gland controls growth and regulates other endocrine glands, including the gonads.
Hormones (oestrogen for girls, androgen and testosterone for boys) cause physical changes.
- Girls: Height increase, hip widening, increase in breast fatty tissues.
- Boys: Facial and body hair growth, muscle development, voice changes.
Types of Physical Changes:
- Secondary sexual changes: Distinguish boys from girls.
- Primary sexual changes: Changes in reproductive organs for procreation.
Individual differences exist due to health, nurture, and heredity.

Body Image

Definition (Santrock): The way one sees oneself or imagines how one looks.
Can be positive or negative.
Positive body images are associated with health-enhancing behaviours like balanced diets and regular exercise.
Girls are generally less happy with their body images than boys throughout puberty but improves towards the end of puberty for both.
Poor body images involve negative thoughts and feelings about appearance.
A healthy body image includes positive thoughts, feelings, and acceptance of one's body.
Adolescents experience an imaginary audience (egocentric state of believing many people are watching them).
Spotlight effect: The belief that others pay more attention to one's appearance and behaviour than they actually do (Myer, 2015).
Adolescents overestimate how much others notice them.

Factors That Affect Perception of the Physical Self

Personal Factors

Introspection and Self-Reflection:
- Looking inward to achieve self-knowledge (Hewstone, et al., 2015).
- Introspection involves observing and examining one's internal state after behaving a certain way.
- Limited due to keeping unwanted thoughts out of memory.
- People tend to overestimate their positive aspects.
Self-Perception Theory (Bem, 1972):
- People infer their inner states by observing their own behaviour, as if they are an outside observer.
- Internal states are difficult to interpret.
- Physical perception includes all aspects of a person's perception of their physical self.
Self-Concept (Hewstone, et al., 2015):
- A cognitive representation of self-knowledge.
- Includes all beliefs people have about themselves.
- A collection of individual experiences, characteristics, social roles, values, goals, and fears.
- Physical self-concept is the individual's perception or description of their physical self.
Personal Identity:
- The concept a person has about themselves that develops over the years.
- Includes family, nationality, gender, physical traits, choices, friends, and beliefs.

Social Factors

Attachment (Bowlby):
- The quality of early relationships can affect a person's self-esteem.
- Secure attachments enable accurate self-appraisal; insecure attachments can lead to low self-esteem.
The Looking-Glass Self (Cooley):
- A person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others.
- People see themselves as they believe others see them.
Social Comparison (Festinger):
- Evaluating oneself by comparing to others.
- Upward social comparison (comparing to someone better) can lead to feelings of inferiority.
- Downward social comparison (comparing to someone less fortunate) can lead to feelings of superiority and arrogance.
- Facebook is a common venue for social comparison.
- It is important to avoid comparing oneself to others and set realistic standards.
Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1979):
- People achieve understanding about themselves by being a member of their group.
- People need a positive social identity and connect to a wider social network.
- Membership enhances self-esteem and provides security.
- Social groups include gender, ethnicity, religion, profession, political membership, and business organizations.

Self vs. Identity

Self: Belongs to an individual level analysis, including self-esteem, self-states, self-efficacy, etc. It is the person that someone truly is or who a person believes she or he is, representing a synthesis and integration of self-understanding (Santrock, 2014).
Identity: Based on societal or cultural level analysis, such as cultural concept of oneself and cultural make up. It is the total characteristics or qualities of a person both known and unknown to others but known to oneself. The traits and characteristics, social relations, roles, and social group memberships that define who one is. A way of making sense of some aspect or part of self-concept (Leary and Tangney (2012)

Self-Esteem and Ideal Body Image

Self-Esteem (Hewstone et al., 2015): The overall evaluation a person has of themselves, positive or negative, high or low.
It is a measure of self-worth based on personal or social standards.
People with high self-esteem are happier, have a sense of accomplishment and purpose, and relate well with others.
Self-esteem fluctuates across the life span and may not always match reality (Santrock, 2014).
Factors affecting self-esteem include physical appearance.
Adolescent's body image includes:
1. Perception of their physical self when they look in the mirror.
2. Feelings of like or dislike about the physical self that they see.
3. Their thoughts and how they relate to their physical self.
4. Perception of how other people view them physically.
Positive body image leads to high self-esteem and more time spent taking care of appearance.
Attention received for physical beauty elevates self-esteem.
Dissatisfaction with one's appearance and failure to meet cultural standards of beauty can lead to negative body image and low self-esteem.

Perspectives of Human Sexuality

Sexual selfhood is defined as how one thinks about himself or herself as a sexual individual.

Historical Perspective

Ancient Greece: Male was dominant; the penis symbolized fertility, and the male body was admired.

Psychological Perspective (Rosenthal, 2013)

Sexuality involves emotions, thoughts, and beliefs, not just physical responses.
Sigmund Freud:
- Humans face two forces: sex instinct or libido (pleasure) and death or aggressive instinct (harm toward oneself or others).
- Human behaviour is geared towards satisfying these instincts.
- Libido or sexual energy is located in erogenous zones (mouth, anus, genitals) during different psychosexual stages.
Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development:
- Oral stage: Erogenous zone is the mouth, gratification through eating and sucking.
- Anal stage: Erogenous zone is the anus, gratification from defecation.
- Phallic stage: Erogenous zone is the genitals, sexual attraction towards the opposite-sex parent (Oedipus complex for boys, Electra complex for girls).
- Latency stage: Sexual impulses lie dormant, focus on social activities.
- Genital stage: Erogenous zone is the genitals again, sexual attraction towards others (opposite sex).
Freud's Personality Structure:
- Id: Seeks pleasure and aggression, follows the pleasure principle, wants immediate gratification.
- Superego: Sense of morality, restricts the demands of the id, developed through learning right from wrong.
- Ego: Follows the reality principle, analyses the needs of the id and consequences as dictated by the superego, and thinks of ways to satisfy the need in an acceptable manner.
According to social learning theories, sexuality develops from behaviours learned in childhood, rewards, punishments, imitation, identification, thoughts and perception (Rosenthal, 2013).

Religious Perspective

Judaism: Positive outlook toward marital sex; blessed by God and pleasurable.
Islam: Family is important, celibacy within marriage is prohibited, and sex is permitted only within marriage.
Taoism: Sex is natural, healthy, and a sacred union for physical, mental, and spiritual balance.
Hinduism: Sexuality is a spiritual force, and ritual lovemaking celebrates and transcends the physical.
Roman Catholic Church: Marriage is for intercourse and procreation, homosexuality is not sinful but homosexual acts are, birth control is opposed but natural family planning is accepted, and abortion is prohibited.

Clarifying Sexual Terminologies

Sex is derived from the Latin word 'secare' which means 'to divide' while the word sexuality means 'to unite,' (Rosenthal, 2013).
Sexual arousal has emerged as a new phenomenon in adolescence, and sexuality should be viewed as a normal aspect of development (Shirley Feldman).
Adolescence is a period of sexual exploration and experimentation; sexuality can be incorporated into the adolescent's identity (Santrock, 2016).
An adolescent's sexual identity includes sexual orientation, ability to manage sexual feelings, and capacity to regulate sexual behaviour.
Gender refers to the characteristics of people as males or females (Santrock, 2014).
Gender role is a set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should think, act, and feel.
Sex and sexual refer to biological indicators of male and female (DSM V, 2013).
Gender assignment refers to the initial assignment at birth.
Gender reassignment denotes an official and usually legal change of gender.
Gender identity is an individual's identification as male, female, or another category.
Masculine refers to qualities and behaviours associated with men and boys.
Feminine refers to qualities and behaviours associated with women and girls.
Androgyny refers to having both masculine and feminine traits.
Asexuals are persons who do not experience sexual drives or attraction.
Hypersexuals are persons with an excessive interest in sex (Rosenthal, 2013).

Phases of Human Sexual Response

Human Sexual Response Cycle (HSRC) by Masters and Johnson:
- Excitement: The body's initial physical response to sexual arousal, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure and muscle tone.
- Plateau: The period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm, intensification of changes from the excitement phase.
- Orgasm: Waves of intense pleasure, often associated with vaginal contractions in females and ejaculation in males.
- Resolution: The body returns to its non-excited state.
Sexual response varies from person to person, and sexual fulfilment can occur without completing all phases.
Rosenthal (2013) includes the stage of desire prior to excitement

Three Phases of Romantic Love (Helen Fisher and colleagues, 1998)

Lust Phase:
- Characteristics: Intense craving for sexual contact.
- Hormones and Neural Pathways Involved: Androgen and estrogen, pheromones and the senses.
Attraction Phase:
- Characteristics: Couples are infatuated and pursue a relationship; energy and attention focused on one person.
- Hormones and Neural Pathways Involved: High dopamine and norepinephrine; low serotonin.
Attachment Phase:
- Characteristics: Long-term bond between partners; feeling of security, comfort, and emotional union.
- Hormones and Neural Pathways Involved: Oxytocin, vasopressin.
Love is characterized by concern for other's well-being, a desire for physical presence, and emotional support.
Sex is an important component of romantic love, but not the only one.

John Lee's Love Styles

Eros (EH-ros): Love based on strong sexual and emotional component, creating initial excitement. Romantic and passionate love which emphasizes physical attraction and sexual desire. The Eros lover dreams of the ideal characteristics of a partner and usually experiences love at first sight. Seldom lasts forever because they tend to be quick to fall in and out of love.
Agape (AH-gah-pay): Altruistic and selfless love, showing love without expecting reciprocation. Considers the wishes of his partner as more important than his own. He may not have a perfect partner but he will always be there to support and offer his love. More acceptable to women than men.
Storge (Store-gay): Love-related friendship, based on nonsexual affection, gradual and slow process. Commitment, stability, and comfort are goals. Don't suddenly fall in love with an idealized lover.
Ludus: Love is a game for fun/entertainment. They do not experience jealousy. They don't value commitment or intimacy. They manipulate their partners by lying, cheating and deceiving.
Mania: Intense feeling, obsessive and possessive love. Constant checking of partner's whereabouts, jealousy, out of control, easily taken advantage of by ludic lovers.
Pragma: Practical and business-like love. Plans the best time to get married, have children, and other future plans. Based on what is appropriate. Not intense nor out of control (Rosenthal, 2013).

Sexual Orientation

Heterosexual: a person whose sexual orientation is toward others of the opposite sex.
Bisexual: a person who may be sexually oriented to both men and women.
Pansexual: attracted regardless of sex or gender identity. The word "pan" is a Greek word for "all or every." Thus, they may also be called "gender blind" for they believe that gender and sex are not determining factors for getting sexually attracted to others. Differs from bisexual in that bisexuals are attracted to both males and females whereas pansexual is more fluid.
Transgender: according to DSM V (2013), refers to individuals who transiently or persistently identify with a gender different from their natal gender.
Transsexual denotes an individual who seeks, or has undergone, a social transition from male to female or female to male, which in many, but not all, cases also involve a somatic transition by cross-sex hormone and genital surgery (sex reassignment surgery).
A person is suffering from gender dysphoria if there is a distress that may accompany the incongruence between one's expressed gender or gender identity and one's assigned gender.

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

HIV/AIDS:
- HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) attacks and destroys CD4 (Tcells) of the immune system.
- AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) happens with untreated HIV.
- No effective cure exists, but ART (antiretroviral therapy) controls the virus.
- AIDS is diagnosed by CD4 cell count (less than $200 cells/mm^3$ ).
Genital Herpes: Caused by a family of viruses and are sexually transmitted.
Genital Warts: Caused by human papillomavirus, contagious, and commonly acquired in the 15-24 age group.
Gonorrhea: Caused by bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae; symptoms include discharge and burning sensations; can lead to infertility or other complications.
Syphilis: caused by bacterium Treponema pallidum, a spirochete: may progress through four phases: Primary (chancre sores appear), Secondary (general skin rashes occur), latent (a period that can last for several years with no overt symptoms), and tertiary (cardiovascular disease, blindness, paralysis, skin ulcers, liver damage, mental problems and even death may occur).
Chlamydia: caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, and spreads through sexual contact. Many females with chlamydia are, asymptomatic. cause urinary tract or bladder infection and vaginal yeast infection are common among sexually active females (Santrock, 2014).

Methods of Contraception (Artificial and Natural)

Hormonal Method: Prevents the release of an egg or ovulation.
- Oral Contraceptives (Pills): Daily oral contraceptives; some contain estrogen and progestogen; others are progestin only and is over 99% effective if used according to instructions.
- The Patch: Small patch on the skin that releases estrogen and progestogen. It stops ovulation and is over 99 percent effective if used according to instructions.
- The Ring: Small plastic ring inserted into the vagina monthly; releases hormones to stop ovulation. It is over 99 per cent effective if used appropriately based on the instructions.
- Implants: Small flexible rod under the skin of the upper arm; releases progestogen. The contraceptive implant is a small flexible rod that is place under the skin of the upper arm by a health professional and releases progestogen to stop ovulation.
- Injectable: Long-acting reversible contraception; does not depend on daily use and is more than 99 per cent effective.
Barrier methods methods that physically or chemically block the sperm from reaching an egg and provide a barrier between direct skin to skin contacts
- Diaphragm: Soft dome made of latex or silicone and is used with spermicide. It is put into the vagina to cover the cervix and is 92 to 96 per cent effective when used correctly.
- Cervical Caps: Similar to the diaphragm, though they are generally always made of silicone. They are put into the vagina to cover the cervix and are 92 to 96 per cent effective when used correctly.
- Male and Female Condoms or spermicides: Male condom is made up of thin latex put over the penis to stop the sperm from entering vagina. It is 98% effective when used exactly according to instructions. The female condom is made of thin polyurethane that loosely lines the vagina and stops sperm from entering. It is 95% effective if properly used
Behavioral Methods
- Rhythm or Calendar Method: Determine fertile/infertile times by charting the menstrual cycle. Also known as natural family planning or fertility awareness.
- Abstinence or celibacy: Refers to the avoidance of sexual intercourse.
- Outercourse: Sexual activity without the insertion of the penis into the vagina.
- Withdrawal (Latin - coitus interruptus): Man removes his penis from the vagina and ejaculates outside of the woman's body.
Sterilization procedures that make an individual permanently incapable of conceiving or fertilizing a partner
- Tubal ligation / sterilization: Surgery for woman in which fallopian tubes are tied to prevent eggs from travelling to the uterus so a woman cannot get pregnant.
- Vasectomy: Surgeon makes a small cut in the upper part of the scrotum then ties or blocks the vas deferens. Men can still have orgasm or ejaculation after the operation.
Intrauterine Device (IUD): Small device placed in the uterus by a doctor to prevent pregnancy.
Emergency Contraception (EC): Measure against pregnancy after unprotected sex (IUD or higher dosage of pills).

Self-Expression via Design

Design in everyday life reflects personal identity at home, work, restaurants, and leisure places.
Design matters from small items (toothpick, spoon, fork) to larger equipment and cars.
Roland Barthes (1915-1980): Observed relationships between people and objects, objects as signs with messages beyond practical value.

Semiology

Barthes popularized the field of Semiology (the study of objects as signs) in the 1950s.
A sign is anything that conveys meaning.
Objects are not just things but a complex system of signs.
Objects can speak, even ordinary ones.
Semiotic is the study of signs.
A sign has two elements:
- Signifier: Physical form (e.g., a diamond ring).
- Signified: Mental concepts it refers to (e.g., engaged).
Objects reflect wider communications and individual lives.

Material Possessions

Material goods fulfil instrumental, social, symbolic, and affective functions (Dittmar, 1992, 2004).

Instrumental Functions: Functional properties of a product (e.g., a pickup truck for family and business).
Social Symbolic Functions: Signify personal qualities, social standing, group affiliation, and gender role (e.g., buying an iPhone).
Categorical Functions: Communicate group membership and status (e.g., buying a condo in Makati City).
Self-Expressive Functions: Reflect unique qualities, values, or attitudes (e.g., collecting Hello Kitty items).

Economic Self

Economics is the study of things a person is lacking, how people use what they have, and making the right decisions.
Economic self-sufficiency is the ability to consistently meet needs.
Economic consciousness results from socialization and professionalization; includes perceptions, attitudes, relationships, and opinions about economic objects and phenomena (Khashchenko, 2004).
Economic identity is a psychological phenomenon from social categorization (e.g., rich, sustainable, or poor).
Factors affecting economic identity include professional development, self-determination, and personal values.

Symbolic Motives

Status: Deriving a sense of recognition or achievement from owning the right product.
Materialism is the importance ascribed to the ownership and acquisition of material goods in achieving major life goals.
Status may increase consumption and can motivate behavior.
Affective Motives is a concept used in Environmental Psychology.
People's emotional affinity with nature can be a better predictor of pro-environmental behaviour than cognitive beliefs about environmental issues.
In relation to the economic self, affective motive, can be a basis of the buying behaviour.
Thus using the affective motive: people buy the goods not only because they think they need it but more so because of the joy/happiness (affect) buying the goods provide through the mere acquisition of it.

Anticipated affect is when a person expects to feel good or guilty when doing something.
Anticipated positive affect (excitement, pride, happiness) and negative affect (anger, sadness and frustration) are important predictors of whether to buy or not to buy the product.
This can be a strong motivator or barrier for the buying behaviour.

Consumer Culture

Consumer identity is the pattern of consumption that describes the consumer.
Brands are used as symbolic resources for identity construction.
Consumption expresses identities.
Consumerism is the preoccupation with buying consumer goods.
Increasing consumption is economically desirable.
High class consumption legitimizes consumer culture.

Behavioral Finance

Buying behaviour is based on the function of goods and how people feel, influence decisions, causing unpredictable and irrational ways and is answered by behavioural finance.
Behavioral Finance combines behavioral and cognitive psychological theory with conventional economics and finance