english co4-6
The Writing Process
5 Stages in Writing
1. Prewriting:
The writer determines the:
Purpose of writing
Audience
Topic
Gathers detailed ideas and develops the controlling idea or thesis.
Techniques in Pre-writing:
Freewriting
Questioning
Brainstorming
Clustering
Outlining
Researching
2. Drafting:
Pre-writing notes and sentences are turned into paragraphs for the first draft.
It has 3 important parts: the introduction, body, and conclusion.
Rough Draft: It may undergo editing by the writer, but it is not the polished version of the assignment.
Reminder during drafting stage:
Let your sentences confuse the readers
Make weird word choices
Commit grammar mistakes
Let it exist
Because that’s how you will improve your draft!
3. Revising:
The goal of the revision stage is to make sure that your writing is logical and flows well.
Revising is also checking if there are ways of improving style, word choice, figurative language, sentence variety, and subtlety of meaning.
What to revise in your draft?
Content: What information is missing/ should be revised in my draft?
Confirm purpose and main claim
Adding information/ supporting details
Removing irrelevant information
Replacing ideas
Organization: Is there any confusion when reading my draft?
Use of transitional words, phrases, and sentences.
Look for the idea development (e.g., compare and contrast, giving examples, etc.)
Check whether the examples or ideas support the main idea
Check against your outline
Structure of ideas (introduction, body, and conclusion)
Style: Can an average reader read my draft?
Word choice
Use of transition words or phrases
Wordy sentences
Too much use of jargons or idioms
Reminder during the revising stage:
Don’t revise immediately after you finished your first draft.
Let your peers read and comment on your draft
Use grammar checking tools if you have a hard time on looking out for grammar mistakes
Revising stage is an endless cycle until it can be published.
4. Editing:
The process of checking the accuracy of facts and correcting errors in spelling, grammar, usage, and mechanics (spelling, punctuation, capitalization).
Revising vs. Editing:
Revising:
Content
Organization or Flow of ideas
Word choice
Editing:
Sentence structure
Grammar and Mechanics
Word choice
In revising, we are looking deeply in your draft to make it readable. In editing, we are looking at the surface level to approve it for publishing.
What to edit in your draft?
Subject-verb agreement
Pronoun-antecedent agreement
Run-on sentences and sentence fragments
Capitalization and use of punctuation marks
Spelling of unfamiliar words
Improve style and clarity
Proofreading Marks:
Delete: take out something here. (Mark: e. Example: cary mufflers should should)
Insert: add something here. (Mark: Λ. Example: You afraid are mice.)
Add space here. (Mark: /. Example: Jugglersbuy alot of eggs.)
No space: close the gap. (Mark: 0. Example: some body)
Delete and close the gap. (Mark: ⁁ . Example: the giraffe)
New paragraph here. (Mark: ¶. Example: “Yes.” said Jack.)
No paragraph: keep sentences together. (Mark: ===. Example: The meeting was brief. It lasted twenty minutes.)
Transpose: switch these things. (Mark: ⁐. Example: freinds both were)
Change or insert this letter. (Mark: . Example: like sucęss)
Make this a capital letter. (Mark: . Example: old dr. smith)
Make this a small letter. (Mark: /. Example: My Uncle lost a shovel.)
Spell it out. (Mark: O. Example: His②friends are Fido Spot.)
Insert a period. (Mark: Δ. Example: It was raining.I got weto)
Insert a comma. (Mark: ⋀. Example: "London London England," he said.)
Insert an apostrophe. (Mark: ‘. Example: It's a dog's life.)
Insert quotation marks. (Mark: ". Example: “You're a pane. said the door.)
Is this correct? Check it. (Mark: ?. Example: Columbus sailed in 1942.)
5. Publishing:
Producing a final copy of a piece of writing and presenting it to an audience.
Decisions must be made about: which form will best reach the intended audience; and accomplish the intended purpose.
Ways to publish your writing:
Presenting orally in a class or discussion
Posting on a bulletin board or a blog
Creating a multimedia presentation
Essential Writing Skills
Essential Writing Skills: brief narration which can be called either as summarizing, paraphrasing, or direct quoting.
Summarizing:
It is a compact, condensed version of the original text and only includes the main points of the source text (Manansala et al., 2018).
It should be brief, concise, and complete (Plata et al., 2013).
You can summarize a whole article or condense selected parts to achieve your purpose.
Strategies in Summarizing:
Selection and Deletion
Note-taking
How to summarize effectively?
Read the original text to identify the main ideas.
Choose a summarizing strategy.
Check the main ideas and major supporting details against the original text.
Paraphrase main ideas and major supporting details.
Cite the source properly.
Begin writing the central idea of the original text in your own words.
Write the main ideas and supporting details in a paragraph using your own words.
Edit your summary. Include transitions or discourse markers.
Example:
Original Passage: "In order to communicate effectively with other people, one must have a reasonably accurate idea of what they do and do not know that is pertinent to the communication. Treating people as though they have knowledge that they do not have can result in miscommunication and perhaps embarrassment. On the other hand, a fundamental rule of conversation, at least according to a Gricean view, is that one generally does not convey to others information that one can assume they already have." The passage is taken from Raymond S. Nickerson's "How We Know-and Sometimes Misjudge-What Others Know: Imputing One's Own Knowledge to Others." Psychological Bulletin 125.6 (1999): p737.
Summary: Nickerson (1999) argues that clear communication hinges upon what an audience does and does not know. It is crucial to assume the audience has neither too much nor too little knowledge of the subject, or the communication may be inhibited by either confusion or offense (Nickerson 1999: 737).
Paraphrasing:
A paraphrase retains the length of the original text and expresses the original author's ideas in your own words (Manansala et al., 2018).
It also includes the main ideas and supporting details of the original text.
The ability to paraphrase demonstrates how able you are to write about the content using your own words and clarify the gist of the text to others.
How to paraphrase effectively?
Read the source material closely. Understand its meaning.
Identify the main idea, key points, and key words.
Without looking at the text, write down what you remember about the general message.
Modify word usage, sentence structure, style, and overall flow. Make it as unique as possible while staying true to the meaning of the source material.
Review your paraphrase to check it accurately reflects the original text but is in your words and style.
Record the source (including the page) so that you can credit it easily if you decide to incorporate the material into your paper.
Techniques in Paraphrasing:
Changing vocabulary or jargons by using synonyms
argues = claims
wages = labor costs
eighteenth century= 1700s
economize = saving
NOTE: Do not attempt to paraphrase every word, since some words have no DIRECT synonym.
Changing word class
explanation (n.) > explain (v.)
mechanical (adj.) > mechanize (v.)
profitable (adj.) > profitability (n.)
Changing word order
Original: . . . the best explanation for the British location of the industrial revolution is found by studying demand factors.
Paraphrased version: A focus on demand may help explain the UK origin of the industrial revolution.
Changing active voice to passive voice
Active: The dog bit the man.
Passive: The man was bitten by the dog.
Subj + verb + object --> Object + verb + subj
Changing direct speech to indirect speech
Direct: The teacher said to Paul, "If do not finish your project, I'll call your mother. "
Indirect: The educator scolded Paul and said that he would call his mother, if he did not finish his project.
Example:
Original Passage: "In order to communicate effectively with other people, one must have a reasonably accurate idea of what they do and do not know that is pertinent to the communication. Treating people as though they have knowledge that they do not have can result in miscommunication and perhaps embarrassment. On the other hand, a fundamental rule of conversation, at least according to a Gricean view, is that one generally does not convey to others information that one can assume they already have." The passage is taken from Raymond S. Nickerson's "How We Know-and Sometimes Misjudge-What Others Know: Imputing One's Own Knowledge to Others." Psychological Bulletin 125.6 (1999): p737.
Paraphrased text: Nickerson (1999) suggests that effective communication depends on a generally accurate knowledge of what the audience knows. If a speaker assumes too much knowledge about the subject, the audience will either misunderstand or be bewildered; however, assuming too little knowledge among those in the audience may cause them to feel patronized (Nickerson 1999: 737). ***Page number is not required in paraphrasing
Direct Quoting:
A direct quotation copies the exact words of the original author. It is a word-for-word (verbatim) reproduction of the source's statements or remarks (Plata et al., 2013).
The use of direct quotations remains included as an essential strategy for in-text referencing, although it is done sparingly.
When do we quote?
The language of the author is particularly memorable and interesting.
The language is clearly and economically stated that paraphrasing it makes the message ineffective.
Use of quotations emphasizes the solid reputation of a source, which lends authority and credibility to your own writing.
You should not quote merely because of lack of understanding or laziness.
Strategies in Direct Quoting:
Using appropriate quoting format
Strong-author orientation – used when the author is the authority in the field
Weak-author orientation – used when the date is important
Subject-orientation – used when what is said is more important than who said it
Using introductory tags - a phrase consisting of the author's name and the appropriate verb that signals the appearance of a direct quotation
Using interpolations – amendments to a directly-quoted statement
[sic] – an error in spelling, idea, or grammar
ellipsis (…) – omissions; dropping unimportant information –if appearing at the end of the statement, use four periods
Brackets ([ ]) – changing capitalization or adding words without changing the meaning
Block quotation – quoting 40 words or more
Quotation marks are not needed
The quotation must be on a separate line
The line must be 0.5 inches indented
The direct quote must be doubled-spaced
Remember:
DO NOT USE QUOTATIONS INCORRECTLY
NEVER end a paragraph with a block quote
NEVER let a quote stand alone; instead, join the quote to your text in a way that is grammatically correct, and explain its significance
NEVER alter the text or punctuation of a direct quote UNLESS you follow the set guidelines
NEVER use a quote without acknowledging the source.
Position Papers
What is a Position Paper?
It is written to side on a particular issue and “build up a case for [own] opinion or position” through the use of facts, statistics, and other forms of evidence (Fleming, 2024).
Purpose of Writing a Position Paper
Writing a position paper means generating support on an issue. It describes a position on an issue and the rationale for that position (Xavier University Library, 2014).
The goal of a position paper is to convince the audience that your opinion is valid and worth listening to (University of Hawaii, 1998).
Writing your position paper
Issue Criteria
Is it a real issue, with genuine controversy and uncertainty?
Can you identify at least two distinctive positions?
Are you personally interested in advocating one of these positions?
Is the scope of the issue narrow enough to be manageable?
Analyzing an Issue And Developing an Argument
Once your topic is selected, you should research the subject matter.
While you may already have an opinion on your topic and an idea about which side of the argument you want to take, you must ensure that your position is well-supported.
Considering your Audience
Who is your audience?
What do they believe?
Where do they stand on the issue?
How are their interests involved?
What evidence is likely to be effective with them?
Determining your Viewpoint
Is your topic interesting?
Can you manage the material within the specifications?
Does your topic assert something specific, prove it, and where applicable, propose a plan of action?
Do you have enough material or proof to support your opinion?
Plagiarism and Academic Dishonesty
To avoid plagiarism, you must give credit whenever you use:
another person's idea, opinion, or theory;
any facts, statistics, graphs, drawings-- any pieces of information--that are not common knowledge;
quotations of another person's actual spoken or written words; or
paraphrase of another person's spoken or written words.
Project Proposals
What is a Project Proposal?
A project proposal is a written document outlining everything stakeholders should know about a project, including the timeline, budget, objectives, and goals.
It should summarize the project details and sell your idea so stakeholders feel inclined to get involved in the initiative.
It is a type of paper written to persuade the community or a funding organization to prioritize and give importance to a proposed idea or concept.
Three Types of Project Proposals
Solicited Proposal is a type of proposal requested by businesses and government agencies; this could also include Broad Agency Announcements (BAA), Request for Proposal (RFP) and Request for Quotation (RFQ).
Unsolicited Proposal is a type of work proposal submitted voluntarily. It can either be a research or an academic program proposal.
Grant is a type of proposal asking for financial solicitation that is related to business, and not work. It is usually two to four pages in length.
The purpose of writing a project proposal is to serve as a guide, to get funding, to convince people to participate, and to serve as a reference for evaluating the project.
Parts of a Project Proposal
The proposal should contain a detailed explanation of the:
justification of the project;
activities and implementation timeline;
methodology; and
human, material, and financial resources required.
I. Project Name
This section pertains to the identity of the proposed project.
The project title should be short, concise, and preferably refer to a certain key project result or the leading project activity.
Project titles that are too long or too general fail to give the reader an effective snapshot of what is inside.
II. Project Type/ Context
This part refers to the general type or kind of project the product is under.
e.g. industrial, environmental, informative, training, seminar, etc.
e.g. This project will be educational, environmental, and practical for it includes seminars and clean-up drives.
This part of the project describes the social, economic, political, and cultural background from which the project is initiated. It should contain relevant data from research carried out in the project planning phase or collected from other sources.
The writer should take into consideration the need for a balance between the length of this item and the size of the overall project proposal.
III. Rationale
This section expresses the reason why the project must commence.
This also includes the principles underlying the project.
IV. Objectives/ Aims
This section specifies what you want to accomplish in the conduct of the project.
Project goal (or overall objective) is a general aim that should explain what the core problem is and why the project is important, i.e. what are the long-term benefits to the target group? Some examples of a project goal might be:
raising environmental awareness;
improving the quality of life in the community; and
fostering social empowerment among women from deprived rural areas.
V. Description
This chapter provides the characteristics of the project: the persons responsible, beneficiaries, the time period, and the place of implementation.
A brief description should be given of the project personnel, the individual roles each one has assumed, and the communication mechanisms that exist between them. All the additional information (such as CVs) should be attached to the annexes.
VI. Project Outline/ Draft
This part provides an overview of the project. It could be a blueprint or a draft of the product. It may also be the step-by-step procedures that you will implement.
The implementation plan should describe activities and resource allocation in as much detail as possible. It is exceptionally important to provide a good overview of who is going to implement the project’s activities, as well as when and where. The implementation plan may be divided into two key elements: (1) the activity plan and (2) the resource plan.
Activity Plan
The activity plan should include specific information and explanations of each of the planned project activities. The duration of the project should be clearly stated, with considerable detail on the beginning and the end of the project.
In general, two main formats are used to express the activity plan: a simple table and the Gantt chart.
Resource Plan
The resource plan should provide information on the means necessary to undertake the project.
Cost categories are established at this stage in order to aggregate and summarize the cost information for budgeting.
VII. Budget Plan
This includes the needed materials, budget needed and the source of funding.
e.g. The project will require the following:
VIII. Monitoring and Evaluation
This chapter specifies how you will determine the realization or success of the project’s objectives.
e.g. The main tools for the monitoring and evaluation of the project outcomes will be survey and evaluation forms. Also, observations will be vital in the analysis of the project’s aftermath.
The basis for monitoring is set when the indicators for results are set. The project proposal should indicate:
how and when the project management team will conduct activities to monitor the project’s progress;
which methods will be used to monitor and evaluate; and
who will do the evaluation.
The schedule of project progress and financial report could be set in the project proposal.
Schools of Literary Theory
Schools of Literary Theory
A piece of literature can be examined through different lenses using literary theory.
A literary theory offers ideas to critics so they could:
consider a work of art based on certain assumptions
focus on particular aspects of a work they consider important
Formalism
A literary work contains certain intrinsic features, and the theory defined and addressed the specifically literary qualities in the text.
It attempts to treat each work as its own distinct piece, free from its environment, era, and even author.
It assumes that the keys to understanding a text exist within the text itself.
Typical Questions:
What are the major elements of the work’s form? Is the meaning of the work embedded as much in how it is done or written as in what it is about?
How is the narrative organized or constructed? Can it be mapped as a logical structure of causes and consequences?
What is the perspective from which the story is told and how does that affect what is told or can be told?
What metaphors or images are used? What thematic purposes do the metaphors serve?
How do such elements of poetic construction as rhyme and rhythm affect meaning?
Reader-Response Criticism
It considers readers' reactions to literature as vital to interpreting the meaning of the text.
It can take a number of different approaches.
The role of the reader cannot be omitted from our understanding of literature.
Readers actively make the meaning they find in literature.
Typical Questions:
How does the interaction of text and reader create meaning?
What does a phrase-by-phrase analysis of a literary text tell us about the reading experience pre-structured by (built into) that text?
Do the sounds/shapes of the words as they appear on the page or how they are spoken by the reader enhance or change the meaning of the word/work?
How might we interpret a literary text to show that the reader's response is, or is analogous to, the topic of the story?
What does the body of criticism published about a literary text suggest about the critics who interpreted that text and/or about the reading experience produced by that text?
Historicism
It seeks to reconnect a work with the time period in which it was produced and identify it with the cultural and political movements of the time.
It resists the notion that history is a series of events that have a linear, causal relationship.
New Historicism does not believe that we can look at history objectively, but rather that we interpret events as products of our time and culture.
Typical Questions:
How is the historical moment present in the work? How is the work a product of its particular historical era?
What was going on that might have been a significant influence on the work?
Does the work make an argument that is part of a contemporary debate?
How are the characters in the work “historical”? How do they represent types or figures who are specific to a particular time?
Are the positions the author takes or the values and ideals the work endorses shaped by historical circumstances?
Does the work pertain to a particular discourse and does it contend with another discourse?
Marxism
Attempts to reveal the ways in which our socioeconomic system is the ultimate source of our experience.
Interested in answering the overarching question, whom does it benefit? The elite? The middle class?
Looks at how the lower or working classes are oppressed - in everyday life and in literature
There will always be conflict between the upper, middle, and lower (working) classes and this conflict will be reflected in literature.
Typical Questions:
Whom does it benefit if the work or effort is accepted/ successful/believed, etc.?
What is the social class of the author?
Which class does the work claim to represent?
What values does it reinforce? Subvert?
What conflict can be seen between the values the work champions and those it portrays?
What social classes do the characters represent?
How do characters from different classes interact or conflict?
Feminism
Refers to the ways in which literature reinforces or undermines the economic, political, social, and psychological oppression of women.
Looks at how aspects of our culture are inherently patriarchal (male-dominated) and aims to expose misogyny in writing about women.
Follows the waves of feminist history
Waves of Feminism:
WAVE 1st:
YEAR STARTED: 19th century
CHIEF FOCUS: legal rights (e.g. suffrage)
WAVE 2nd:
YEAR STARTED: 1960s
CHIEF FOCUS: equality; discrimination
WAVE 3rd:
YEAR STARTED: 1990s
CHIEF FOCUS: intersectionality; diversity
WAVE 4th:
YEAR STARTED: 2012
CHIEF FOCUS: women empowerment; technology
Typical Questions:
How are women depicted in the text? Is the portrayal positive or negative?
What are the characters’ roles?
How’s the relationship of the characters?
How do males interact with women in the literature?
Professional Correspondence
Professional Writing
It refers to all written communication in an organizational or business setting. Its primary goal is to educate, instruct, or persuade an audience effectively.
Principles:
Use the active voice.
In the active voice, the subject performs the action. In the passive voice, the subject is acted upon.
Example:
The manager will review the proposal before finalizing his decision. (active voice)
The proposal will be reviewed by the manager before his decision is finalized. (passive voice)
Write concisely.
Replace wordy phrases with one-to-two-words terms and delete redundant words or phrases.
Examples:
a large number of --> many
prior to the time --> before
at this point in time --> now, currently
displays the ability --> can
Avoid redundant words or phrases.
Examples:
Incorrect: If this incident recurs again, I will file a formal complaint against you.
Correct: If this incident recurs, I will file a formal complaint against you.
Incorrect: These are the true facts of what transpired in the lobby yesterday.
Correct: These are the facts of what transpired in the lobby yesterday.
Be consistent.
Avoid unnecessary shifts of subject, number, tense, voice, or point of view so as not to confuse the readers.
Examples:
Shift in person: When you finish the report, one will feel a sense of achievement.
Shift in number/gender: You should proofread the memo before they submit it to the supervisor. Ms. Cruz revised the drafts, and he sent it to the committee head.
Shift in voice and subject: Mr. Santos screened the application forms, and the applicants were interviewed by him.
Shift in verb tense: Although the partner admired the new staff’s enthusiasm, she cannot tolerate her frequent tardiness.
Use personal tone.
It helps build rapport and enhance engagement while maintaining professionalism.
Examples:
“We understand your concerns, and we're here to help ensure you have the best experience with our service.”
“I appreciate your prompt response and look forward to collaborating on this project.”
Types of Professional Correspondence:
Business Letters
They are a formal written communication used in professional settings to convey information, requests, or responses between companies, clients, employees, or other stakeholders.
Emails
They are a digital form of communication used to send messages over the internet. It is widely used to exchange information quickly and efficiently. Emails can include text, attachments, images, and hyperlinks, making them a versatile communication tool.
Reports
They are written documents that archive and share information, document events, or conclude projects and recommendation for internal business purposes.
Memos
They are used within organizations to communicate information. There are typically brief an easy-to-read while maintaining a professional tone.
Meeting Agenda
It is a structured list of topics, discussions, or tasks to be addressed during a meeting. It serves as a roadmap to ensure meetings stay organized, productive, and focused on key objectives.
Résumé and Cover Letter
A résumé is a professional document that summarizes a person’s skills, work experience, education, and achievements. A cover letter is a personalized document submitted with a résumé that introduces the applicant, explains their interest in the position, and highlights key qualifications.
Business Letters and Emails
Business Letters
They are a formal written communication used in professional settings to convey information, requests, or responses between companies, clients, employees, or other stakeholders.
Emails
They are a digital form of communication used to send messages over the internet. It is widely used to exchange information quickly and efficiently. Emails can include text, attachments, images, and hyperlinks, making them a versatile communication tool.
Differences
Feature: Format
Business Letters: Follows a structured format with sender’s and recipient’s address, date, salutation, body, closing, and signature
Emails: Includes a subject line, salutation, body, closing, and email signature
Feature: Formality
Business Letters: Generally more formal and official
Emails: Can be formal or informal, depending on the context
Feature: Efficiency
Business Letters: Takes time for delivery
Emails: Instant delivery
Feature: Delivery Method
Business Letters: Sent physically
Emails: Sent electronically through the internet
Feature: Length
Business Letters: Often longer and more detailed
Emails: Usually concise and direct
Feature: Purpose
Business Letters: Used for contracts, business proposals, legal notices, and official correspondence
Emails: Used for quick communication, follow-ups, announcements, and informal business discussions
Format of Business Letters:
Full Block: The entire letter is left justified.
Modified Block: The body of the letter and the sender's and recipient’s addresses are left justified and single-spaced. However, for the date and closing, tab to the center point and begin to type.
Semi-Block: It is much like the modified block style except that each paragraph is indented instead of left justified.
Parts of Business Letters
Sender's Address
Date
Recipient's Address
Salutation
Body
Complimentary Close
Signature
Enclosures
Parts of Emails
To
cc
bcc
From
Subject
Salutation
Body
Closing
Signature
Writing a Request Letter/Email
Letter of Request: A letter of request is a formal written communication in which one party asks another to provide assistance, information, or take a specific action. It is typically used in professional, legal, or governmental contexts to make a polite, official request for something.
Types of Requests
Routine Requests: The requests are part of the recipient’s job. Thus, the request is expected to be carried out. The routine requests may start with the main idea. “I am writing to request…” “Could you send me some updates on…” “Kindly email me more details on…” Even if it is a routine, close it with a friendly tone. “I look forward to hearing from you.” “Thank you very much.”
Non-Routine Requests: The requests require special favors beyond what is expected from someone. The non-routine requests include softeners. “Could you please…” “Would you mind…” “I would greatly appreciate if…” Close it with an expression of appreciation and gratitude. “Thank you for your prompt assistance with this request.” “Thank you very much for your help.”
Content of a Request Letter and Email
Part: Introduction
Routine Request: A brief statement introducing yourself and the request
Non-Routine Request: A formal introduction explaining the request and setting the context
Part: Body
Routine Request: Request details, reason for the request, and supporting information
Non-Routine Request: Request details, reason for the request, potential impact, and alternatives (if applicable)
Part: Closing Statement
Routine Request: A polite and friendly expression of gratitude and request for approval.
Non-Routine Request: A polite expression of gratitude with a willingness to provide additional information
Writing a Complaint Letter/Email
Letter of Complaint: A complaint letter is a written document in which an individual expresses dissatisfaction or raises concerns about a product, service, or situation. The purpose of this letter is to formally communicate the issue and request a resolution or corrective action.
Features: