as level european history study guide

## I. The French Revolution (Source 2)

### The Moderate Phase (1789–1791)

* Estates General meets (5/5/89): Called by Louis XVI to address a bankrupt treasury; stalemate occurs over whether to vote by head (favoring the Third Estate) or by order (favoring the nobility/clergy).

* National Assembly formed (6/17/89): Frustrated by the stalemate, the Third Estate declares themselves the true representatives of France, effectively challenging the King's absolute authority.

* Tennis Court Oath (6/20/89): Locked out of their hall, the Assembly moves to a nearby tennis court, vowing not to leave until a written constitution is established, signaling the end of absolutism.

* Necker Dismissed (7/11/89): Louis XVI fires his moderate finance minister, Jacques Necker; the public views this as a royal coup against the National Assembly, leading to panic.

* Storming Bastille (7/14/89): A mob of Parisians seeking gunpowder and weapons attacks the medieval fortress; its fall symbolizes the collapse of royal despotism and saves the National Assembly.

* Declaration of Rights of Man (8/26/89): Influenced by Enlightenment thought, it establishes sovereignty in the nation and guarantees equality, liberty, and property.

* Women's March (10/5/89): Thousands of Parisian women, protesting bread prices, march to Versailles, forcing the Royal Family to move to the Tuileries Palace in Paris where they can be monitored.

* Civil Constitution of Clergy (7/12/90): This law turns the Catholic Church into a department of the state; priests are elected by the people and must swear an oath of loyalty to the government.

* Pope Pius VI condemns Civil Constitution (3/10/91): The Pope forbids the clergy from taking the oath, creating a massive religious schism between "refractory" (loyal to the Pope) and "juring" (loyal to the state) priests.

* Flight to Varennes (6/20/91): Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette attempt to flee to the border to join counter-revolutionary forces; they are caught, destroying public trust in the monarchy.

* Champ de Mars Massacre (7/17/91): A protest calling for a republic is fired upon by the National Guard (led by Lafayette), marking a violent split between moderate and radical revolutionaries.

### The Radical Phase & The Terror (1792–1794)

* La Marseillaise composed (4/24/92): Rouget de Lisle writes the anthem as a rallying cry for the war against tyranny as foreign armies threaten France.

* France declares war on Austria (4/20/92): Fearing Austrian intervention to restore Louis XVI, the Legislative Assembly launches a preemptive strike, beginning decades of European war.

* Insurrection/End of Monarchy (8/10/92): Radical "sans-culottes" and soldiers storm the Tuileries; the King is suspended and imprisoned, marking the birth of the Second Revolution.

* September Massacres (9/6/92): Spurred by fears of a foreign invasion and prison breakouts, mobs execute over 1,200 prisoners, including many priests and aristocrats.

* National Convention formed / Republic proclaimed (9/20-21/92): The first French assembly elected by universal male suffrage meets and immediately abolishes the monarchy.

* Convention outlaws terms madame & monsieur (10/10/92): Part of a radical egalitarian movement to replace social titles with "Citizen" (Citoyen) to emphasize civic equality.

* Louis XVI executed (1/21/93): After a trial for treason, the "Citizen King" is guillotined; the act shocks Europe and leads to the First Coalition against France.

* France declares war on Britain, Holland, and Spain (2/93–3/93): The Republic aggressively expands the war, aiming to spread revolutionary ideals and secure "natural frontiers".

* Counter-revolt begins in Vendee (3/11/93): A massive Catholic and Royalist uprising against the draft and the persecution of the Church, leading to a brutal internal war.

* Committee of Public Safety formed (4/6/93): Created to provide executive leadership during the crisis of war and civil unrest; it soon becomes the engine of the Terror.

* Purge of Girondists (5/93): Radical Montagnards and Paris mobs force the arrest of moderate Girondist deputies, leaving the Convention under radical Jacobin control.

* Marat killed in bathtub (7/13/93): The radical journalist and "friend of the people" is assassinated by Charlotte Corday, making him a martyr for the Jacobin cause.

* Levee en Masse (8/23/93): A decree of total mobilization where every citizen (men, women, children) is required to contribute to the war effort.

* "Terror is the Order of the Day" (9/5/93): The Convention formally adopts systemic violence and intimidation to purge internal enemies and ensure survival.

* Law of Suspects (9/17/93): A broad decree defining "enemies of liberty" so vaguely that almost anyone could be arrested for their conduct or associations.

* Republican 10-day calendar (10/5/93): A "rational" calendar designed to erase the Christian influence of Sunday and religious holidays.

* Constitution suspended (10/10/93): The democratic Constitution of 1793 is put on hold "until the peace" because the state is in emergency mode.

* Marie Antoinette executed (10/16/93): The former Queen is guillotined after a trial intended to symbolize the final death of the Old Regime.

* Festival of Supreme Being (11/10/93): Robespierre's attempt to replace the "Cult of Reason" with a deistic state religion to provide a moral foundation for the Republic.

* Abolition of slavery in colonies (2/4/94): The Convention becomes the first major power to end slavery, partially driven by the rebellion in Saint-Domingue.

* Death of Danton (4/5/94): Robespierre executes George Danton and his "Indulgents" for suggesting that the Terror should be scaled back.

* Robespierre guillotined (7/28/94): Fearing they are next on his list, members of the Convention arrest Robespierre; his death ends the Terror.

### The Thermidorian Reaction & The Directory (1795–1799)

* Freedom of worship re-instated (2/21/95): The state backs away from de-Christianization, allowing private religious practice once again.

* Directory established (8/22/95): A new constitution creates a bicameral legislature and a five-man executive (the Directory) to prevent any one person from holding power like Robespierre.

## II. The Napoleonic Era (Source 1)

### The Rise to Power

* Battle of Toulon (5/93): Napoleon gains fame as an artillery officer by recapturing a strategic port from the British.

* Vendemiaire Coup (10/95): Napoleon defends the Directory from a royalist mob using cannons ("a whiff of grapeshot"), making him a hero of the government.

* Battle of Lodi (5/96): A key victory in Italy where Napoleon demonstrates his personal bravery and gains the absolute devotion of his troops.

* Treaty of Campo Formio (10/97): Napoleon negotiates this treaty with Austria independently, gaining Belgium and northern Italy for France.

* Napoleon in Egypt (7/98): An expedition to cut off Britain's route to India; while militarily a failure (Battle of the Nile), it is a scientific and propaganda success.

* Brumaire Coup (11/9/99): Napoleon overthrows the failing Directory; he is named "First Consul" in the new Consulate government.

### The Consolidation of the State

* Consulate (12/99): The new government system where Napoleon holds supreme power while maintaining a facade of republicanism.

* Bank of France established (1800): Napoleon stabilizes the economy by creating a central bank to handle government debt and issue currency.

* Napoleon crossing the Alps (1/1801): He leads his army over the Great St. Bernard Pass to surprise the Austrians in Italy; immortalized by David's painting.

* Concordat w/ Pope (7/1801): Napoleon heals the rift with the Church; Catholicism is recognized as the "religion of the majority" but the state keeps control.

* Lycee elite schools open (5/1802): A centralized system of secondary schools designed to produce the next generation of military and civil leaders based on merit.

* Napoleon Consul for life (8/1802): A national plebiscite (vote) grants Napoleon the position for the rest of his life, moving closer to absolute rule.

* Louisiana Purchase (5/1803): Needing money for upcoming wars and realizing he cannot defend his American territory, Napoleon sells it to the U.S..

* Civil Code (3/1804): Also known as the Napoleonic Code, it codifies laws regarding property and family, spreading revolutionary legal equality across Europe.

### The Empire & The Downfall

* Napoleon Emperor (12/1804): Napoleon crowns himself at Notre Dame, signaling that his authority comes from himself, not the Pope or hereditary right.

* Austerlitz (12/1805): The "Battle of the Three Emperors"; Napoleon crushes the Russo-Austrian forces, leading to the end of the Holy Roman Empire.

* Continental System (11/1806): A decree forbidding the European continent from trading with Britain, intended to ruin the "nation of shopkeepers".

* Retreat from Russia (12/1812): After capturing a burning Moscow, Napoleon is forced to retreat in winter; 90% of his Grande Armée is lost to cold and hunger.

* Napoleon to Elba (4/1814): Following his defeat by the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to the island of Elba.

* Battle of Waterloo (6/1815): After returning for the "Hundred Days," Napoleon is finally defeated by the Duke of Wellington (UK) and Gebhard von Blücher (Prussia).

## III. Industrialization & British Reform (Source 3)

### The Technological & Infrastructure Foundations

* Kay's Flying Shuttle (1733): This device allowed a single weaver to weave much wider fabrics and at a much faster rate than before.

* Bridgewater's Canal (1761): The first major canal in Britain; it cut the cost of coal in Manchester by half, proving the value of artificial waterways.

* Arkwright's 1st factory (1769): Richard Arkwright uses the water frame to power textile machinery, moving production from homes into large factories.

* Enclosure Acts (1760s): Parliament allows landowners to fence off communal lands; this increases agricultural efficiency but drives poor farmers into cities.

* 1st steam-powered railway developed (1804): Richard Trevithick builds the first locomotive; though early, it sets the stage for the rail boom of the 1830s.

* 1st Atlantic steamship crossing (1819): The SS Savannah proves that steam power can bridge continents, revolutionizing global trade and migration.

### Labor Unrest & Social Legislation

* Combination Act (1799): Outlaws labor unions and collective bargaining, fearing that worker organizations were breeding grounds for French-style revolution.

* Luddite outbreaks start (1811): Skilled textile workers attack factories and break machines that they fear are destroying their trades and lowering wages.

* Peterloo Massacre (1819): 60,000 people gather in Manchester to demand parliamentary reform; the cavalry charges, killing 18 and injuring hundreds.

* Combination laws repealed (1824): After pressure from reformers, unions are legalized, though their powers remain strictly limited.

* Great Reform Act (1832): It expands the franchise to the middle class and eliminates "rotten boroughs" (districts with no people but a seat in Parliament).

* Sadler Committee Established (4/1832): A parliamentary investigation into the grueling conditions of child labor, which shocks the public and leads to reform.

* Factory Act (1833): It bans children under 9 from working and limits hours for older children; crucially, it establishes government inspectors.

* Slavery Abolition Act (1833): Largely due to the efforts of William Wilberforce, slavery is outlawed throughout the British Empire with compensation for owners.

* New Poor Law (9/1834): Designed to reduce the cost of welfare; it makes relief so unpleasant (workhouses) that people will only seek it as a last resort.

* People's Charter written (5/1838): The Chartist movement demands six points, including universal male suffrage and the removal of property requirements for MPs.

* Newport Rising (1839): The only large-scale armed rebellion in 19th-century Britain; Chartist miners attempt to liberate political prisoners.

* Chadwick's Royal commission report (1842): Edwin Chadwick proves the link between filth, disease, and poverty, laying the groundwork for modern sanitation.

* Mines Act (1842): Prohibits all women and girls, and boys under 10, from working underground in coal mines.

* Corn Laws repealed (1846): The removal of duties on imported grain; a victory for industrial capitalists over the landowning aristocracy.

* Public Health Act (9/1848): Following a cholera outbreak, it creates a Board of Health to oversee sewers and water quality in British cities.

## IV. German Unification (Source 4)

### The Struggle for Dominance (1815–1862)

* Carlsbad Decrees (1819): Metternich forces these through to censor the press and disband student nationalist groups (Burschenschaften).

* Zollverein Forms (1834): A coalition of German states that manages tariffs; by excluding Austria, Prussia gains economic leadership.

* First Prussian Railroad (1835): Begins the rapid industrialization that will provide Prussia with the logistical advantage in future wars.

* Revolutions of 1848 (3/1848): Liberal and nationalist revolts break out in Vienna and Berlin, demanding constitutions and a unified Germany.

* Frankfurt Parliament meets (5/48): An assembly of intellectuals tries to write a constitution for a united Germany but collapses due to internal indecision.

* Friedrich Wilhelm IV turns down crown (5/49): The Prussian King refuses to take a "crown from the gutter" offered by the Frankfurt Parliament.

* Attempted Erfurt Union (3/50): Prussia's attempt to create a "Small Germany" (Kleindeutschland) under its own control, excluding Austria.

* Humiliation of Olmutz (11/50): Under threat of war from Austria and Russia, Prussia is forced to back down and restore the old German Confederation.

### Bismarck's Realpolitik (1862–1890)

* Bismarck Prime Minister (1862): King Wilhelm I appoints Otto von Bismarck to solve a constitutional crisis over the military budget.

* Bismarck's Iron & Blood speech (9/62): He argues that the great questions of the day will be decided by war (iron) and industry (blood), not by voting.

* Austro-Prussian War (6/66): Prussia defeats Austria in seven weeks; the Treaty of Prague dissolves the German Confederation and excludes Austria.

* Dual Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (8/1866): Weakened by defeat, the Austrian Empire is forced to grant Hungary equal status to prevent its collapse.

* North German Confederation forms (1867): A new union of northern states dominated by Prussia, serving as a stepping stone to full unification.

* Ems Telegram (7/13/1870): Bismarck edits a message from the King to make it sound insulting to the French, provoking them into declaring war.

* Franco-Prussian War begins (7/19/70): The southern German states join Prussia against France; Napoleon III is captured at the Battle of Sedan.

* Start of German Empire (1/71): Wilhelm I is proclaimed Kaiser (Emperor) in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, completing unification.

* Germany claims Alsace & Lorraine (1/71): These French provinces are annexed to the new Empire, creating lasting resentment that leads toward WWI.

* Kulturkampf (1872): Bismarck launches a "culture struggle" against the Catholic Church, fearing that Catholics are more loyal to the Pope than to Germany.

* Triple Alliance (1882): A defensive alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, intended to isolate France.

* Accident Insurance/Social Security (1883-89): Bismarck introduces the world's first welfare state to win worker loyalty away from the Socialist party (SPD).

* Berlin Conference (1884): Bismarck hosts the "Scramble for Africa," setting the rules for European colonization to avoid conflict at home.

* Bismarck Resigns (1890): The new Kaiser, Wilhelm II, wants to rule personally and disagrees with Bismarck's cautious foreign policy.

## V. The Russian Revolution (Source 5)

### The Late Tsarist Era

* Nicholas II Tsar (11/1894): He takes the throne committed to autocracy but lacks the decisiveness and vision of his predecessors.

* Start of Russo-Japanese War (2/1904): A conflict over control of Manchuria and Korea; Russia expects an easy win against an "inferior" Asian power.

* 1905 Revolution / Bloody Sunday (1/1905): Troops fire on peaceful protesters at the Winter Palace, shattering the "Little Father" image of the Tsar.

* October Manifesto (10/1905): To stop the strikes and mutinies, Nicholas II promises civil liberties and an elected parliament (the Duma).

* Fundamental Laws (4/1906): Just before the first Duma meets, the Tsar issues laws that reclaim his absolute power, making the Duma nearly toothless.

* Stolypin Prime minister (7/1906): He launches land reforms to create a class of conservative, land-owning peasants ("the wager on the strong").

* Lena Goldfields Massacre (4/1912): Tsarist troops shoot striking miners in Siberia, reigniting mass labor protests across Russia.

* Rasputin killed (12/1916): The mystic monk, who held great influence over the Tsarina, is murdered by aristocrats trying to save the monarchy.

### The Year of Revolution (1917)

* February Revolution (2/1917): Bread riots in Petrograd turn into a revolution when soldiers refuse to fire on the crowds; Nicholas II abdicates.

* April Thesis (4/1917): Lenin returns from exile and calls for "Peace, Land, and Bread" and "All Power to the Soviets," rejecting the Provisional Government.

* Kornilov Affair (8/1917): General Kornilov attempts a military coup; the Provisional Government has to arm the Bolsheviks to stop him.

* October Revolution (10/1917): The Bolshevik Red Guard seizes key points in Petrograd; the Provisional Government is arrested.

* Cheka established (12/1917): The Bolsheviks create a secret police force to combat counter-revolutionaries and "saboteurs".

* Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3/1918): To end the war with Germany, the Bolsheviks give up 1/3 of Russia's population and most of its coal and iron mines.

* Nicholas II killed (7/1918): During the Civil War, the Bolsheviks execute the entire royal family to prevent them from being rescued by the White Army.

* Kronstadt Mutiny (3/1921): Sailors who were once "the pride of the revolution" revolt against Bolshevik dictatorship, leading Lenin to adopt the New Economic Policy.