Practical Bones

  1. Temporal Bone

Functions:

  • Protects brain regions (including temporal lobe)

  • Provides attachment points for muscles involved in chewing + head movements

Precise Location:

  • Located on the SIDES of the skull, near the ears

Characteristics:

  • Involves the Mastoid Process which is a rounded projection for muscle attachment

  • Involves the Styloid Process which is a pointed projection for ligament + muscle attachment

  • Involves the External Acoustic Meatus which is a canal that leads to the eardrum + middle ear

  1. Occipital Bone

Functions:

  • Protects the occipital lobe of the brain

  • Contains the foramen magnum (which allows the spinal cord to connect with the brain)

Precise Location:

  • Back + base of the skull

Characteristics:

  • Involves the Foramen Magnum opening for the spinal cord.

  • Involves the Occipital Condyles which are rounded protrusions that articulate with the 1st cervical vertebra

  1. Ethmoid Bone

Functions:

  • Provides structural support for the nasal cavity + orbits

  • Contributes to sense of smell by protecting the cribriform plate for nerves

Precise Location:

  • Located BETWEEN the nasal cavity + orbits (at the midline of the skull) 

Characteristics:

  • Involves the Cribriform Plate, a structure that allows nerves to pass through

  • Contains the Perpendicular Plate, which forms the superior portion of the nasal septum

  1. Sphenoid Bone

Functions:

  • Forms the base of the skull + stabilizes the cranial bones

  • Protects + encases the pituitary gland within the sella turcica


Precise Location:

  • Located at the base of the skull, between the frontal + temporal bones

Characteristics:

  • Includes the Sella Turcica, 

    • A depression which protects the pituitary gland

  • Contains Greater and Lesser Wings

    • Which contribute to the cranial floor + orbit walls

  • Contains multiple Foramina for the passage of cranial nerves + blood vessels

  1. Parietal Bone

Functions:

  • Protects the upper sides + roof of the brain

  • Provides attachment points for muscles of the head

Precise Location:

  • Located on the sides + top of the skull

Characteristics:

  • Has well-defined Sutures that connect with adjacent cranial bones

  • Contains grooves for Meningeal Blood Vessels which supply the brain

  • Has a Smooth Surface to support brain tissue

  1. Frontal Bone

Functions:

  • Protects the frontal lobe of the brain

  • Forms the forehead + part of the orbital cavity

Precise Location:

  • Anterior part of the skull, above the eyes

Characteristics:

  • Involves the Supraorbital Foramen

    • Allowing nerves + vessels to pass to the forehead

  • Contains the Frontal Sinuses

    • Which reduce skull weight

  • Forms part of the Coronal Suture, connecting with the parietal bones


  1. Maxillae

Functions:

  • Forms the upper jaw + supports the teeth

  • Contributes to the formation of the nasal cavity + hard palate.

Precise Location:

  • Centrally located in the face, BELOW the orbits + ABOVE the mouth

Characteristics:

  • Contains the Maxillary Sinuses (largest paranasal sinuses) 

  • Forms the Anterior Portion of the Hard Palate, separating the nasal + oral cavities

  1. Mandible

Functions:

  • Supports the lower teeth

  • Enables chewing + speech through jaw movement

Precise Location:

  • Located in the lower jaw region, extending from ear to ear

Characteristics:

  • Contains the Mandibular Condyles, articulating with the temporal bone for jaw movement

  • Includes the Coronoid Process, a triangular projection essential for muscle attachment


  1. Lacrimal Bones

Functions:

  • Supports the medial walls of the orbit

    • Providing a passageway for tears through the lacrimal canal

Precise Location:

  • Located in the medial part of each orbit, near the nasal bones

Characteristics:

  • Small + delicate, contributing to the orbital structure

  • Lies adjacent to the Maxilla and Ethmoid Bones


  1. Nasal Bones

Functions:

  • Forms the bridge of the nose

  • Provides structural support for the cartilage that shapes the nose

Precise Location:

  • Located in the midline of the face, ABOVE the nasal cavity

Characteristics:

  • Small, paired bones that articulate with the Frontal and Maxillary bones

  • Serves as an attachment point for nasal cartilage


  1. Zygomatic Bones

Functions:

  • Forms the prominence of the cheeks.

  • Contributes to the lateral walls + floors of the orbit

Precise Location:

  • Located on the lateral sides of the face, BELOW the orbits

Characteristics:

  • Articulates with the Temporal, Frontal, Maxillae, + Sphenoid Bones

  • Contains the Temporal Process, which forms part of the zygomatic arch

  • Dense + strong, effectively supporting facial muscles

  1. Vomer

Functions:

  • Forms the INFERIOR portion of the nasal septum

  • Supports airflow through the nasal cavity

Precise Location:

  • Located in the midline of the nasal cavity, BELOW the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone

Characteristics:

  • Thin, flat bone that articulates with the Maxilla + Palatine Bones

  • Contributes to the division of nasal passages

  • Stabilizes the nasal septum structure


  1. Palatine Bones

Functions:

  • Forms the posterior portion of the hard palate

  • Contributes to the nasal cavity + floor of orbits

Precise Location:

  • Located at the back of the oral cavity, near the maxilla

Characteristics:

  • Includes the Horizontal Plate, forming part of the hard palate

  • Articulates with the Maxillae, Sphenoid, + Ethmoid Bones


  1. Hyoid Bone

Functions:

  • Serves as an attachment point for tongue + neck muscles

  • Supports the larynx 

  • Assists in swallowing

Precise Location:

  • Located in the neck, between the mandible and the larynx, not directly attached to other bones.

Characteristics:

  • U-shaped bone with a…  (also looks like vampire teeth) 

    • Body

    • Greater Cornua 

    • Lesser Cornua

  • Separated by ligaments from the temporal bones

  • Essential for speech


16. Mastoid Process

Functions:

  • Serves as a muscle attachment point for head + neck movements.

  • Encases / protects air cells involved in middle ear function

Precise Location:

  • Rounded projection on the temporal bone, BEHIND the ear

Characteristics:

  • Visible behind the ear as a bony prominence

  • Associated with the Temporal Bone + ear structure


17. Styloid Process

Functions:

  • Provides attachment for ligaments + muscles of the tongue + neck

  • Indirectly supports the hyoid bone 

Precise Location:

  • Slender, pointed projection extending from the temporal bone

Characteristics:

  • Long + thin, resembles a stylus

  • Articulates with muscles involved in swallowing

  • Often fractured due to its delicate structure


18. External Acoustic Meatus

Functions:

  • Channels sound waves to the eardrum

  • Protects the middle + inner ear

Precise Location:

  • Canal located in the temporal bone, leading to the tympanic membrane

Characteristics:

  • Lined with ceruminous glands (which produces earwax)

  • Visible as the ear canal opening

19. Foramen Magnum

Functions:

  • Allows the spinal cord to connect with the brainstem

  • Serves as a passage for arteries + nerves

Precise Location:

  • Large opening in the base of the occipital bone

Characteristics:

  • Surrounded by Occipital Condyles for articulation with the atlas

  • Located centrally in the posterior cranial fossa

  • Essential for nervous system connectivity


20. Zygomatic Arch

Functions:

  • Provides structural support for the face

  • Serves as an attachment point for facial + jaw muscles

Precise Location:

  • Arch formed by the zygomatic + temporal bones, extending laterally from the face

Characteristics:

  • Composed of the Temporal Process of the zygomatic bone + Zygomatic Process of the temporal bone.

  • Forms the cheekbone structure

  • Contributes to the lateral boundary of the orbit


21. Occipital Condyles

Functions:

  • Articulates with the atlas to allow head movements

  • Supports the skull on the vertebral column

Precise Location:

  • Rounded protrusions on the underside of the occipital bone, lateral to the foramen magnum

Characteristic:

  • Smooth + oval-shaped, aiding in articulation


22. Cervical vs. Thoracic vs. Lumbar Vertebrae

Functions:

  • Protect the spinal cord while supporting the head + torso

  • Enable movement + flexibility of the spine

Precise Location:

  • Cervical: Neck region (C1-C7).

  • Thoracic: Upper back, articulates with ribs (T1-T12).

  • Lumbar: Lower back, below the thoracic region (L1-L5).

Characteristics:

  • Cervical: Smallest vertebrae; have transverse foramina for blood vessels; spinous processes (except C1 + C7)

  • Thoracic: Larger, heart-shaped bodies

    • Articulate with ribs via costal facets; long, downward-pointing spinous processes

  • Lumbar: Largest + thickest vertebrae; kidney-shaped bodies; short + blunt spinous processes for weight-bearing


23. Atlas (C1)

Function:

  • Supports the skull + enables nodding ("yes" motion)

Precise Location:

  • 1st cervical vertebra, at the BASE of the skull

Characteristics:

  • No body OR spinous process, creates a ring-like structure

  • Includes anterior + posterior arches

  • Contains superior articular facets that articulate with the occipital condyles


24. Axis (C2)

Function:

  • Allows for rotational head movement ("no" motion)

Precise Location:

  • 2nd cervical vertebra, directly BELOW the atlas

Characteristics:

  • Contains the dens (odontoid process), a peg-like bony structure for pivoting with the atlas

  • Articulates with BOTH the atlas (C1) and the 3rd cervical vertebra (C3)

25. Body

Functions:

  • Bears + distributes weight throughout the vertebral column

  • Provides attachment for ribs 2-7 via costal cartilage

Precise Location:

  • Middle, elongated portion of the sternum

Characteristics:

  • Largest part of the vertebra, (especially in lumbar regions)

  • Largest part of sternum 

  • Composed of spongy bone encased in compact bone for strength

  • Flat surface with ridges which mark rib attachments 

  • Shapes vary 

    • Cervical: circular 

    • Thoracic: heart-shaped 

    • Lumbar: kidney-shaped


26. Transverse Process

Functions:

  • Provides attachment points for muscles + ligaments.

  • In thoracic vertebrae, articulating with ribs

Precise Location:

  • Lateral projections extending from either side of the vertebral arch

Characteristics:

  • Found on BOTH sides of the vertebra

  • Contain transverse foramina in cervical vertebrae for blood vessels

  • Thoracic transverse processes feature costal facets for rib articulation


27. Spinous Process

Functions:

  • Serves as an attachment site for muscles + ligaments

  • Protects the spinal cord

Precise Location:

  • Posterior projection from the vertebral arch

Characteristics:

  • Prominent + easily felt through the skin (especially in thoracic + lumbar regions)

  • Long + DOWNWARD-pointing in thoracic vertebrae

  • Short + blunt in lumbar vertebrae


28. Vertebral Foramen

Function:

  • Protects the spinal cord

Precise Location:

  • Large opening in the CENTER of the vertebra, surrounded by the body + vertebral arch

Characteristics:

  • Largest in cervical vertebrae to support the thicker spinal cord

  • Forms part of the vertebral canal 

  • Circular in thoracic vertebrae 

  • Triangular in lumbar vertebrae

29. Ribs

Functions: 

  • Protects vital organs, including heart + lungs

  • Supports breathing by providing attachment points for muscles

Precise Location:

  • Extends from the thoracic vertebrae to the sternum OR ends in cartilage (depending on its type)

Characteristics:

  • Composed of bone + cartilage for flexibility + strength

  • Its curved structure helps form the rib cage

  • They are classified based on their attachment to the sternum OR vertebrae

ID:

  • True Ribs (1-7): Attach DIRECTLY to the sternum via costal cartilage.

  • False Ribs (8-10): Attach INDIRECTLY to the sternum via cartilage of the rib above

  • Floating Ribs (11-12): NO attachment to the sternum, only to the vertebrae

30. Sternum

Functions:

  • Protects vital organs in the chest (ex: the heart)

  • Serves as an attachment point for ribs + clavicles

Precise Location:

  • Center of the chest, forming the anterior portion of the rib cage

Characteristics:

  • Composed of 3 parts: manubrium, body, + xiphoid process

  • Flat, elongated bone with a narrow structure

  • Articulates with the clavicles + 7 ribs


31. Manubrium

Function:

  • Supports the clavicles + the 1st pair of ribs

Precise Location:

  • UPPER portion of the sternum

Characteristics:

  • Broad + triangular in shape

  • Contains the jugular notch at the top

  • Articulates with the clavicles + 1st costal cartilage


32. Xiphoid Process

Function:

  • Attachment point for abdominal muscles

Precise Location:

  • LOWER, small tip of the sternum

Characteristics:

  • Ossifies as you age

  • Varies in size + shape between individuals

  • Important landmark for CPR


33. Scapula

Functions:

  • Provides attachment points for muscles (involving arm, shoulder, + back movements)

  • Stabilizes the shoulder joint

Precise Location:

  • POSTERIOR upper back, between ribs 2-7

Characteristics:

  • Flat, triangular bone with a spine for muscle attachment

  • Features the glenoid cavity for articulation with the humerus

  • Contains the acromion + coracoid process for ligament + muscle attachment


34. Clavicle

Functions:

  • Keeps the shoulders apart 

  • Stabilize the shoulder joint

  • Protects underlying nerves + blood vessels

Precise Location:

  • Extends horizontally across the front of the chest, connecting the sternum to the scapula

Characteristics:

  • S-shaped bone 

  • Has a medial (sternal) end that articulates with the sternum 

  • Has a lateral (acromial) end that articulates with the scapula


35. Humerus

Function:

  • Forms the upper arm, allowing for movement at shoulder + elbow

  • Provides attachment points for muscles of the arm + shoulder

Precise Location:

  • Extends from the shoulder to the elbow, articulating with the scapula + forearm bones

Characteristics:

  • Long bone with a rounded head that fits into the glenoid cavity of the scapula

  • Ends in the trochlea + capitulum, which articulates with the ulna + radius


36. Head of Humerus

Function:

  • Articulates with the glenoid cavity to → form the shoulder joint

Precise Location:

  • Proximal end of the humerus

Characteristics:

  • Smooth, rounded surface, allowing for a wide range of shoulder movements

  • Surrounded by the anatomical neck + surgical neck


37. Deltoid Tuberosity

Function:

  • Serves as an attachment point for the deltoid muscle

Precise Location:

  • Lateral surface of the humerus, (midway down the shaft) 

Characteristics:

  • Rugged, raised area on the bone

  • Essential for arm abduction


38. Greater Tubercle

Function:

  • Provides attachment for rotator cuff muscles

Precise Location:

  • Lateral to the head of the humerus

Characteristics:

  • Larger, prominent bump near the top of the humerus

  • Plays a key role in shoulder stability + movement


39. Lesser Tubercle

Function:

  • Serves as an attachment point for the subscapularis muscle (this muscle is a triangular muscle on the inside of the scapula) 

Precise Location:

  • Anterior + slightly medial to the greater tubercle

Characteristics:

  • Smaller than the greater tubercle

  • Faces forward, aiding in internal rotation of the arm


40. Ulna

Functions:

  • Forms the medial bone of the forearm, stabilizing the forearm

  • Articulates with the humerus + radius for elbow + wrist movements

Precise Location:

  • Located on the medial side of the forearm (pinky side)

Characteristics:

  • Long bone with a trochlear notch for articulation with the humerus

  • Includes a styloid process for wrist stabilization

  • Thin distally, thicker proximally


41. Trochlear Notch

Function:

  • Articulates with the trochlea of the humerus allowing for elbow flexion + extension

Precise Location:

  • Found on the proximal end of the ulna

Characteristics:

  • C-shaped depression providing a hinge-like joint

  • Bordered by the olecranon (posterior) + coronoid process (anterior)

42. Styloid Process of Ulna

Function:

  • Stabilizes the wrist joint by anchoring ligaments

Precise Location:

  • Located at the distal end of the ulna, near the wrist

Characteristics:

  • Pointed bony projection

  • Provides attachment for the ulnar collateral ligament

  • Prominent landmark for wrist positioning


43. Radius

Functions:

  • Lateral bone of the forearm, allowing for pronation + supination of the hand

  • Supports wrist movements + bears weight during these motions

Precise Location:

  • Found on the lateral side of the forearm (thumb side)

Characteristics:

  • Thicker distally, thinner proximally

  • Features a head that articulates with the humerus + ulna

  • Includes a styloid process for wrist stabilization


44. Head of Radius

Function:

  • Articulates with the capitulum of the humerus + the radial notch of the ulna

Precise Location:

  • Proximal end of the radius

Characteristics:

  • Disc-shaped + smooth for rotational movement

  • Surrounded by the annular ligament, allowing supination + pronation


45. Styloid Process of Radius

Function:

  • Provides wrist stability by anchoring ligaments

Precise Location:

  • Located at the distal end of the radius, (near the thumb)

Characteristics:

  • Pointed bony projection

  • Larger + more prominent in comparison to → the ulnar styloid process


46. Carpals

Function:

  • Form the wrist + facilitate a wide range of hand movements

Precise Location:

  • Located BETWEEN the radius, ulna + the metacarpals

Characteristics:

  • 8 small bones arranged in TWO rows: 

    • proximal (ex: scaphoid, lunate) 

    • distal (ex: trapezium, capitate)

  • Provide flexibility + support to the wrist joint

  • Articulated tightly with ligaments


47. Metacarpals

Functions:

  • Supports the palm of the hand

  • Act as levers for finger movements

Precise Location:

  • Located BETWEEN the carpals + phalanges (in the hand)

Characteristics:

  • 5 long bones numbered I-V (on diagrams) from thumb to pinky

  • Rounded heads articulate with the phalanges

  • Base articulates with the distal carpal bones


48. Phalanges

Function:

  • Enable finger movement for gripping, manipulation, movement/motion, action, + mobility

Precise Location:

  • Found in the fingers (14 bones in total, 3 per finger EXCEPT 2 in the thumb)

Characteristics:

  • Divided into proximal, middle, + distal segments

  • Short bones with smooth surfaces for joint articulation

  • Provide flexibility + precision for hand movements


49. Pelvic Girdle

Functions:

  • Supports the weight of the upper body while sitting + standing

  • Protects organs in the pelvic cavity (ex: bladder, reproductive organs)

  • Provides attachment points for lower limb muscles

Precise Location:

  • Base of the spine, connecting the axial skeleton to the lower limbs

Characteristics:

  • Formed by two hip bones (coxal bones)

    • Sacrum

    • Coccyx

  • Contains prominent landmarks (ex: acetabulum + pubic symphysis)


50. Hip Bone / Coxal Bone

Functions:

  • Bears weight, transferring it to legs

  • Protects pelvic organs

Precise Location:

  • Lateral sides of the pelvic girdle

Characteristics:

  • Composed of 3 fused bones

    • Ilium

    • Ischium

    • Pubis

  • Includes the acetabulum (hip socket) and obturator foramen


51. Iliac Crest

Function:

  • Provides attachment for abdominal + back muscles

Precise Location:

  • Upper curved edge of the ilium

Characteristic:

  • Prominent ridge visible through the skin


52. Pubic Symphysis

Functions:

  • Connects the 2 pubic bones 

  • Absorbs shock while walking

Precise Location:

  • Midline joint at the anterior of the pelvic girdle

Characteristics:

  • Cartilaginous joint with a fibrocartilage disc

  • Allows slight movement during childbirth


53. Acetabulum

Function:

  • Serves as the socket for the femoral head, forming the hip joint

Precise Location:

  • Lateral side of the hip bone

Characteristics:

  • Deep, cup-shaped cavity

  • Lined with cartilage for smooth articulation


54. Obturator Foramen

Functions:

  • Reduces bone weight

  • Allows passage for nerves + blood vessels.

Precise Location:

  • Large opening between the ischium + pubis

Characteristics:

  • Covered by the obturator membrane, with small openings for structures


55. Sacrum

Functions:

  • Connects the spine to the pelvic girdle

  • Distributes weight to the hip bones

Precise Location:

  • BETWEEN the lumbar spine + coccyx

Characteristics:

  • Triangular bone formed by 5 fused vertebrae

  • Contains the sacral canal + sacral foramina for nerves


56. Coccyx

Function:

  • Provides attachment for pelvic floor muscles

Precise Location:

  • Inferior to the sacrum

Characteristics:

  • Small, triangular bone composed of fused vertebrae

  • Think of it as a remnant of a tail in humans


57. Ilium / Ischium / Pubis

Function:

  • All together, they form the hip bone, supporting the pelvic cavity

Precise Location:

  • Ilium: Superior portion of the hip bone

  • Ischium: Posterior-inferior portion

  • Pubis: Anterior-inferior portion

Characteristics:

  • Ilium: Broad + flat with the iliac crest

  • Ischium: Contains the ischial tuberosity for sitting

  • Pubis: Contributes to the pubic symphysis


58. Femur

Functions:

  • Supports body weight 

  • Allows leg movement

  • Forms the hip + knee joints

Precise Location:

  • Thigh bone, extending from hip to the knee

Characteristics:

  • Longest + strongest bone in the body

  • Features include its: head, neck, + condyles


59. Head of Femur

Function:

  • Articulates with the acetabulum to form the hip joint

Precise Location:

  • Proximal END of the femur

Characteristics:

  • Rounded, ball-like structure

  • Covered with cartilage for smooth movement


60. Neck of Femur

Function:

  • Connects the femoral head to the shaft

Precise Location:

  • BELOW the femoral head

Characteristics:

  • Narrow region prone to fractures

  • Angled in a way to help optimize weight distribution


61. Greater Trochanter

Function:

  • Provides attachment for gluteal + thigh muscles

Precise Location:

  • Lateral side of the femur, proximal end

Characteristics:

  • Large, irregular bony projection

  • Visible through the skin


62. Lesser Trochanter

Function:

  • Attachment site for hip flexor muscles

Precise Location:

  • Posterior-medial side of the femur

Characteristics:

  • Smaller projection compared to the greater trochanter


63. Medial and Lateral Condyles

Function:

  • Articulate with the tibia to form the knee joint

Precise Location:

  • Distal end of the femur

Characteristics:

  • Smooth, rounded surfaces covered in cartilage

  • Medial is larger than lateral


64. Patella

Functions:

  • Protects the knee joint

  • Enhances the leverage of the quadriceps muscle

Precise Location:

  • Anterior to the knee joint

Characteristics:

  • Triangular, sesamoid bone embedded in the quadriceps tendon

  • Smooth posterior surface for articulation with the femur


65. Tibia

Functions:

  • Bears most of the body’s weight

  • Forms the knee + ankle joints

Precise Location:

  • Medial bone of the lower leg, between the knee + ankle.

Characteristics:

  • Larger + stronger than the fibula

  • Includes the medial condyle, lateral condyle, + medial malleolus


66. Medial Condyles

Function:

  • Articulate with the medial condyle of the femur

Precise Location:

  • Proximal end of the tibia, medial side

Characteristics:

  • Smooth, concave surface

  • Covered in cartilage for joint articulation


67. Lateral Condyles

Function:

  • Articulate with the lateral condyle of the femur

Precise Location:

  • Proximal end of the tibia, lateral side

Characteristics:

  • Similar to the medial condyle but slightly smaller


68. Medial Malleolus

Function:

  • Stabilizes the ankle joint

Precise Location:

  • Distal end of the tibia, medial side

Characteristics:

  • Prominent, rounded bony structure palpable on the ankle


69. Fibula

Functions:

  • Stabilizes the ankle 

  • Supports lower leg muscles

Precise Location:

  • Lateral bone of the lower leg, parallel to the tibia

Characteristics:

  • Slender-like, non-weight-bearing bone

  • Includes the head + lateral malleolus.


70. Head of Fibula

Function:

  • Provides attachment for ligaments + muscles

Precise Location:

  • Proximal end of the fibula

Characteristics:

  • Small, rounded structure below the knee


71. Lateral Malleolus

Function:

  • Stabilizes the ankle joint

Precise Location:

  • Distal end of the fibula, lateral side

Characteristics:

  • Prominent structure visible on the lateral ankle


72. Tarsals

Function:

  • Form the posterior part of the foot supporting body weight + aiding movement

Precise Location:

  • Between the tibia/fibula + metatarsals

Characteristics:

  • 7 irregular bones, including the calcaneus + talus.


73. Calcaneus

Functions:

  • Serves as the heel bone, bearing weight 

  • Provides leverage for walking

Precise Location:

  • Posterior part of the foot

Characteristics:

  • Largest tarsal bone

  • Provides attachment for the Achilles tendon


74. Talus

Function:

  • Transfers weight from tibia to → foot

Precise Location:

  • SUPERIOR to the calcaneus

Characteristics:

  • Articulates with the tibia, fibula, + other tarsals


75. Metatarsals

Functions:

  • Form the arch of the foot

  • Aids in balance + walking

Precise Location:

  • BETWEEN the tarsals + phalanges

Characteristics:

  • 5 long bones, numbered I–V (from medial to → lateral)


76. Phalanges (Foot)

Functions:

  • Enable toe movement

  • Contributes to balance

Precise Location:

  • Distal part of the foot

Characteristics:

  • 14 bones

    • 3 in each toe (proximal, middle, distal)

      • Except the big toe, which has ONLY 2