THE-BEGINNING-OF-SCIENCE-2
Page 1: Introduction
Course Facilitator: Mr. Jayson I. Gula
Page 2: Nature of Science
We can model Earth and observe microorganisms, but science itself is not stable.
Page 3: History of Science
The history of science relates to the study of religion and the human quest for truth.
Page 4: Fundamental Questions
Key questions posed:
What is stuff?
What is life?
Where are we?
When are we?
How can we agree on what we know?
Page 5: The Scientific Method
The scientific method involves:
Making observations.
Forming a theory to explain observations.
Conducting experiments to test the theory.
Page 6: Philosophy of Doubt
Quote by René Descartes:
"If you would be a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far as possible, all things."
Page 7: Presocratic Philosophy
Introduction to the Presocratic philosophers.
Page 8: Key Figures in Ancient Greece
Influential philosophers:
Socrates
Plato
Aristotle
Page 9: Beyond Mythology
Religious myths set the stage for philosophical speculation about:
Natural disasters
Human conduct
Afterlife
Page 10: Pre-Socratic Questions
Issues examined by pre-Socratics:
What is the source of varied things?
How do things remain constant through change?
Are principles absolute or socially constructed?
Page 11: Miletus - Birthplace of Philosophy
Miletus:
City-state in Anatolia (Turkey).
A hub of early philosophical thought and maritime trade.
Page 12: Early Philosophers
Notable figures:
Thales
Anaximander
Anaximenes
Page 13: Thales and Water
Thales (625-545 BCE):
Proposed water as the fundamental substance of all things.
Introduced concepts of evaporation and condensation.
Accomplished in astronomy; predicted solar eclipse of May 28, 585 BCE.
Page 14: Historical Reference
Mention of the Battle of Halys related to Thales.
Page 15: Anaximander - The Boundless
Anaximander (610-545 BCE):
Student of Thales.
Proposed an indefinable substance ('the boundless') as the source of all.
Invented early clocks and drafted one of the first maps of Earth.
Page 16: Anaximenes - Air
Anaximenes (585-525 BCE):
Suggested air is the source of all things through condensation and rarefaction.
Variations in density of air create the physical properties of objects.
Page 17: Theory of Condensation and Rarefaction
Anaximenes categorized physical states:
Fire: Highly expanded air.
Wind: Slightly condensed air.
Clouds: More condensed air.
Water: Further condensed air.
Earth: Even more condensed.
Stones: Most condensed form of air.
Page 18: Pythagoras - Mathematical Relations
Pythagoras (570-490 BCE):
Proposed numbers as fundamental to understanding reality.
Established the Pythagorean school focusing on mathematics and music.
Advocated for the immortality of the soul and reincarnation.
Page 19: Heraclitus - Change and Logos
Heraclitus (540-480 BCE):
Identified fire as the primary substance.
Introduced the concept of 'Logos' as the unifying principle of change.
View that change and opposing tendencies are inherent in nature.
Page 20: Heraclitus' Perspective
Famous quote:
"You cannot step twice into the same rivers; for fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you."
Page 21: Empedocles - Four Roots
Empedocles (495-435 BCE):
Proposed everything is made up of four roots: water, air, earth, and fire.
Believed in his own immortality; jumped into Mt. Etna to prove it.
Page 22: Elements Related to Empedocles
Four elements characterized:
Fire: Hot and Dry
Air: Met
Water: Cold
Earth
Page 23: Other Pioneering Philosophers
Acknowledgment of other philosophers contributing to scientific discourse.
Page 24: Eratosthenes - Measuring Earth
Eratosthenes (c. 276 BCE - c. 194 BCE):
Greek scholar who calculated Earth's circumference.
Page 25: Method of Calculation
Observations:
In Syene, the sun was directly overhead during the solstice.
In Alexandria, the sun was at 7.2° south of zenith—1/50th of a circular degree.
Led to the calculation of Earth's circumference: ~40,000 km.
Page 26: Measurements of Earth's Size
Circumference estimates:
40,075 km / 24,901 miles
40,008 km / 24,860 miles
Page 27: Nazir al-Din al-Tusi - Evolution
Nazir al-Din al-Tusi (1201):
Proposed a primitive theory of evolution.
Suggested all organisms evolved from identical original elements.
Page 28: Furthering Evolution Theory
Stated that organisms evolving quickly gain advantages.
Observations on variability and its benefits.
Page 29: Archimedes and Displacement
Archimedes (287-212 BCE):
Discovered volume displacement principle while assessing gold purity.
Realized that silver volume differs from gold at the same weight.
Page 30: The Legend of Archimedes
Story of Archimedes discovering displacement while taking a bath:
Concluded non-pure gold crown through water displacement.
Famous exclamation: "Eureka!"
Page 31: Archimedes Principle
Principle defined: Upthrust on an object in fluid equal to the weight of displaced fluid.
Page 32: Archimedes Principle Formula
Equation summary:
Fb = Wfluid
Page 33: Sample Problem
Calculation scenario involving a yacht and displaced water:
Calculate density, mass of displaced water, and buoyant force.
Page 34: Zhang Heng - Observations of Light
Zhang Heng (78-139 BCE):
Compared sunlight and moonlight with shadows.
Page 35: Diagram of Celestial Bodies
Visual representation of sunlight, moonlight, and shadows:
Components include Umbra and Penumbra
Page 36: Phases of the Moon
Phases identified:
New, Waxing Crescent, Waxing Quarter, Waxing Gibbous, Full, Waning Gibbous, Waning Quarter, Waning Crescent
Page 37: Alhazen - Light's Path
Alhazen (c. 965-1040):
Stated light travels in straight lines.
Discussed reflections and vision.
Page 38: Conclusion
Summary and closure of discussed scientific contributions.